1 Introduction

Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is a staple food crop with significant economic, nutritional, and cultural importance, particularly in West Africa where it serves as a primary source of dietary carbohydrates and other nutrients for millions of people (Asfaw et al., 2019; Morse, 2021). The crop is not only crucial for food security but also provides substantial income for rural households and plays a vital role in socio-cultural practices. In addition to its food uses, some species of yam are utilized in pharmaceutical products, further enhancing its economic value. The cultivation of yam is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, with West Africa accounting for over 95% of global production.

Despite its importance, yam cultivation faces several challenges that hinder its productivity. One of the primary issues is the lack of good-quality planting materials, which significantly affects agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa (Mignouna et al., 2020). The vegetative propagation method used for yams often leads to the carryover and multiplication of pests and diseases from season to season, impacting plant health and yield. Soil fertility management is another critical challenge, as yam traditionally requires high soil fertility, and the continuous cultivation without adequate inputs leads to soil degradation (Frossard et al., 2017; Pouya et al., 2022). Additionally, the crop is susceptible to various biotic and abiotic stresses, including fungal diseases, viruses, nematodes, and low soil fertility, which further limit its yield potential. The need for new, stress-resistant varieties and improved agronomic practices is essential to overcome these challenges and enhance yam productivity (Andualem, 2022).

This study enhances productivity and ensures food security by developing and implementing sustainable agricultural practices and techniques to address key challenges in yam cultivation. The study included an in-depth analysis of the economic feasibility of yam investment, estimating its potential economic returns, and exploring the impact of new technologies on poverty reduction and food security in yam growing areas. By focusing on improving planting materials, optimizing soil fertility management practices, and the development and application of stress-resistant yam varieties, to provide practical solutions to promote the improvement and sustainable development of yam productivity. In the future, the results of this study may significantly improve the living conditions of millions of people who depend on the yam for food and income, and thus improve the overall economic level and nutrition and health of the yam planting communities, and provide strong support for the sustainable development of the yam industry.

2 Soil Management and Fertility Optimization in Yam Cultivation

2.1 Soil quality assessment and improvement strategies for yam cultivation

Soil quality is a critical factor in yam cultivation, influencing both yield and sustainability. In West Africa, yam is traditionally grown on nutrient-rich soils following long fallow periods, but increasing land pressure has led to soil degradation and reduced fertility (Frossard et al., 2017). Effective soil quality assessment involves evaluating soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. For instance, soil organic carbon (SOC) is a key indicator of soil health, and its decline can significantly impact yam productivity (Liu et al., 2021). Strategies to improve soil quality include the incorporation of organic materials such as farmyard manure (FYM) and crop residues, which enhance soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability (Brar et al., 2015). Additionally, the use of cover crops and crop rotations can improve soil organic matter and reduce erosion, further supporting sustainable yam production (Notaris et al., 2021).

2.2 Efficient application of organic and inorganic fertilizers in yam farming

The balanced use of organic and inorganic fertilizers is essential for optimizing yam yields. Research has shown that organic fertilizers, such as poultry manure and oil palm bunch ash, significantly improve soil fertility and yam growth compared to inorganic fertilizers alone. The synergistic use of organic and inorganic fertilizers can enhance nutrient availability and uptake, leading to higher tuber yields and better soil health (Zhou et al., 2022). For example, combining organic manure with NPK fertilizers has been found to increase SOC and improve soil physical properties, which are crucial for sustaining long-term productivity. Moreover, site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) practices can tailor fertilizer applications to the specific needs of the soil and crop, thereby maximizing efficiency and minimizing environmental impact (Shah and Wu, 2019).

2.3 The role of cover crops and crop rotation in enhancing soil health for yams

Cover crops and crop rotations play a vital role in maintaining and enhancing soil health in yam farming systems. Cover crops, such as legumes, can fix atmospheric nitrogen, improve soil structure, and increase organic matter content, which are beneficial for subsequent yam crops. Crop rotations, particularly those involving legumes or cereals, can break pest and disease cycles, reduce soil erosion, and improve nutrient cycling (Pouya et al., 2022). For instance, rotating yams with cereals or legumes has been shown to stabilize yields and improve soil carbon stocks, which are critical for long-term soil fertility. Additionally, incorporating cover crops and crop residues into the soil can enhance microbial activity and nutrient availability, further supporting sustainable yam production (Agegnehu and Amede, 2017).

3 Crop Management Practices for Yam

3.1 Selection of high-quality yam varieties

Selecting high-quality yam varieties is crucial for improving yield and disease resistance. The use of good quality planting material, such as the Yam Minisett Technique (YMT) and the Adapted Yam Minisett Technique (AYMT), has been shown to produce seed yams free of pests and fungal pathogens, although adoption by farmers has faced challenges (Morse, 2021). Positive selection, which involves using virus-free planting materials, has also been effective in reducing disease incidence and increasing yields (Osei et al., 2019; Fu, 2024). These methods are essential for sustainable yam production, especially in regions where traditional practices lead to low yields and environmental degradation (Kiba et al., 2020) (Figure 1).

3.2 Planning of optimal plant density and spacing

Optimal plant density and spacing are critical for maximizing yam yield and ensuring efficient use of resources. Research indicates that soil surface coverage between 70 and 98 days after planting is an early indicator of tuber yield, suggesting that proper spacing can enhance soil coverage and subsequently improve yields (Pouya et al., 2022). Intercropping systems, such as yam-fluted pumpkin/melon-okra/maize, have been shown to reduce weed growth and increase the yield of component crops, highlighting the importance of selecting compatible intercrop combinations for better resource utilization (Weerarathne et al., 2017). Additionally, conservation agriculture practices, which include reduced tillage and residue retention, have been found to improve soil microclimate and nutrient uptake, further supporting the need for optimal plant density and spacing (Remya and Suja, 2023).

3.3 Strategies for pest, disease, and weed management

Effective pest, disease, and weed management strategies are essential for sustainable yam production. The use of pesticides and neem leaf powder has been effective in managing plant parasitic nematodes and reducing tuber galling, leading to higher yields. Integrated weed management (IWM) strategies, including intercropping and the use of ground cover mulches, have been shown to significantly reduce weed biomass and improve crop yields (Nedunchezhiyan et al., 2018) (Figure 1). Conservation chemical practices have also been effective in reducing weed density and biomass, while improving soil quality and microbial activities. These strategies are vital for addressing the challenges of soil fertility, pest pressure, and weed infestation in yam cultivation.

4 Environmental and Climate Adaptation Management in Yam Cultivation

4.1 Climate-adapted cultivation techniques for yams

Climate change poses significant challenges to yam cultivation, particularly in regions like West Africa where yams are a staple food crop. Various studies have explored different adaptation strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on yam productivity. For instance, changing sowing dates has been found to be ineffective in counteracting adverse climatic effects, whereas late-maturing cultivars coupled with irrigation and fertilizer application can significantly increase yam productivity by up to 49% depending on the climate scenario (Srivastava et al., 2016). Additionally, farmers in Ebonyi State, Nigeria, have adopted mixed cropping and improved farming techniques as major adaptation strategies to cope with climate variations. In Cross River State, Nigeria, multiple cropping, crop diversification, and multiple planting dates are among the widespread adaptation practices employed by yam farmers.

4.2 Soil and water conservation strategies in yam farming

Soil and water conservation are critical for sustainable yam farming, especially in the face of climate change. A transdisciplinary approach involving the development and implementation of soil and plant management technologies has shown promise in enhancing yam productivity while minimizing environmental degradation (Kiba et al., 2020). In West Africa, yam-based rotations and fertilization regimes have been identified as effective strategies to stabilize yam production and improve water yam productivity. These practices include the use of mineral and organic fertilizers, as well as rotations with cereals and legumes (Pouya et al., 2022). Furthermore, the systematic review of climate change impacts on crops in West Africa highlights the potential of increased fertilizer use and optimized planting dates to mitigate the negative effects of climate change on crop yields (Carr et al., 2022).

4.3 Water management and precision irrigation techniques for yam growth

Effective water management and precision irrigation techniques are essential for optimizing yam growth and mitigating the impacts of climate change. Innovative irrigation management systems, such as precision irrigation and evaporative cooling, have been shown to improve crop physiological status, increase yield, and save water (Deligios et al., 2019). In the context of yam cultivation, coupling irrigation with late-maturing cultivars and fertilizer application has been identified as a highly effective strategy to enhance productivity. Additionally, the management of irrigation water and planting dates has been found to be beneficial for adapting maize to climate change, suggesting similar potential benefits for yam cultivation. The use of precision irrigation techniques can optimize water use efficiency and support the sustainable development of yam farming in regions facing water scarcity and climate variability.

5 Technological Innovations in Yam Production

5.1 Application of precision agriculture in yam production

Precision agriculture (PA) has emerged as a transformative approach in yam production, leveraging advanced technologies to optimize resource use and enhance crop yields. PA utilizes sensors, IoT, and machine learning to monitor soil conditions, crop health, and environmental factors, enabling precise interventions that improve productivity and sustainability (Cisternas et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2021). Remote sensors and wireless sensor networks (WSN) are particularly effective in gathering real-time data on soil moisture, organic carbon, and crop health, which can be used to make informed decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and pest control. The integration of high-resolution imagery from satellites or drones further aids in monitoring crop conditions and predicting yields, thus reducing human labor and increasing efficiency (Shafi et al., 2019) (Figure 2).

5.2 Advances in genomics and biotechnology

Genomics and biotechnology have significantly advanced yam breeding and cultivation practices. Predictive breeding techniques are being employed to develop yam varieties with improved traits such as disease resistance, drought tolerance, and higher nutritional value (Wu, 2024). These techniques involve profiling parent traits, smart crossing, and selecting individuals with superior attributes, which are then tested in target environments for commercial deployment (Asfaw et al., 2019). Additionally, the development of nematode-resistant cultivars and varieties adapted to low soil fertility are key innovations that address some of the major constraints in yam production. These biotechnological advancements not only enhance yam productivity but also contribute to food security and poverty reduction in yam-growing regions (Mignouna et al., 2020).

5.3 Use of smart machinery and automation

The use of smart machinery and automation in yam production is revolutionizing traditional farming practices. IoT-enabled farm machinery and intelligent irrigation systems are reducing the need for manual labor and increasing operational efficiency. Automated systems for planting, harvesting, and post-harvest processing are being developed to streamline yam production processes (Kiba et al., 2020). For instance, intelligent harvesting techniques and drip irrigation systems ensure optimal water use and reduce wastage, thereby enhancing overall productivity. These innovations are particularly beneficial in regions with labor shortages and challenging climatic conditions, as they help maintain consistent and high-quality yields.

6 Socio-Economic Factors Supporting Yam Productivity

6.1 Labor optimization and mechanization development in yam cultivation

Labor optimization and mechanization are critical for enhancing yam productivity. The study conducted in Ebonyi State, Nigeria, highlights that hired labor significantly impacts multi-factor productivity, reducing it by 1.05% (Chukwuemeka et al., 2019). This suggests that optimizing labor use and integrating mechanization could alleviate labor constraints and improve productivity. Additionally, the introduction of mechanized farming practices can address issues such as inadequate land and high transportation costs, which are significant barriers to increased yam production (Chukwuemeka et al., 2019). Mechanization not only reduces the labor burden but also enhances efficiency and productivity, making it a vital component of modern yam cultivation strategies.

6.2 Agricultural extension and farmer skill development in yam production

Agricultural extension services and farmer skill development are pivotal in improving yam productivity. Research indicates that contact with extension agents is a significant determinant of technical efficiency in yam production (Ismail and Mahmud, 2023). Farmers with regular extension contact tend to adopt better farming practices, leading to higher productivity. In Rivers and Imo States, Nigeria, the study found that dedicated extension agents and accessible credit facilities are crucial for increasing yam productivity (Odinwa et al., 2019). The findings suggest that enhancing the frequency and quality of extension services can equip farmers with the necessary skills and knowledge to adopt improved yam cultivation techniques, thereby boosting productivity.

6.3 Market access, economic incentives, and supply chain optimization for yams

Market access and economic incentives play a crucial role in supporting yam productivity. The economic viability of yam investment in sub-Saharan Africa and beyond is significant, with potential economic returns ranging between US$584 and US$1392 million (Mignouna et al., 2020). This underscores the importance of creating economic incentives for farmers to adopt new technologies and practices. Additionally, improving market access and optimizing the supply chain can address constraints such as high transportation costs and inadequate storage facilities, which hinder yam production (Kiba et al., 2020). By enhancing market access and providing economic incentives, farmers can achieve better profitability and sustainability in yam cultivation.

7 Case Study: Successful Practices for Increasing Yam Yield

7.1 Successful case studies of yield-enhancing practices in different regions

In West Africa, various agronomic practices have been tested to enhance yam yield. For instance, a study conducted across different environmental gradients in Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso found that fertilization regimes, particularly the combination of organic and mineral fertilization, positively impacted soil surface cover but had a weak impact on tuber yields. The study also highlighted the importance of rainfall and soil carbon stocks as key determinants of tuber yields (Pouya et al., 2022). In Ghana, the incorporation of pigeonpea residue into the soil significantly increased yam yields, with the highest yields observed under this treatment compared to other management practices such as continuous unfertilized rainfed yam and yam with added fertilizer (Liu et al., 2021). In Nigeria, factorial trials revealed that increasing yam plant density consistently improved tuber yields, while intercropping with maize reduced yam yields significantly. Additionally, the use of improved seed tubers in Benin led to a yield increase of 22-27% and a gain in profitability of 30~40% for different yam species.

7.2 In-depth analysis of yield improvement strategies in cases

The analysis of various yield improvement strategies indicates that integrated nutrient management and proper agronomic practices are crucial for enhancing yam productivity. In Moluccas, intensive tillage combined with complete NPK fertilization resulted in the highest yield of local yam tubers, demonstrating the effectiveness of both soil preparation and balanced fertilization (Waas et al., 2020). In West Africa, a transdisciplinary approach involving the development and testing of new soil and plant management technologies in collaboration with local stakeholders led to significant increases in yam productivity. This participatory research approach ensured that the technologies were well-adapted to the local biophysical and socio-economic contexts (Kiba et al., 2020). Furthermore, staking methods and appropriate nitrogen doses were found to be essential for maximizing yam yield and quality, with single staking and a nitrogen dose of 120.70 kg/ha being recommended for optimal productivity. Staking also reduced soil loss due to crop harvesting and associated carbon loss, thereby contributing to environmental sustainability.

7.3 Lessons learned and potential for broader application

Several key lessons can be drawn from these case studies. First, the importance of site-specific management practices is evident, as factors such as rainfall, soil carbon stocks, and local agronomic conditions significantly influence yam yields. Integrated nutrient management, including the use of organic and mineral fertilizers, is essential for sustaining soil health and improving crop productivity. The adoption of improved seed tubers and appropriate planting techniques can lead to substantial yield and profitability gains, highlighting the need for investment in yam seed systems (Cornet et al., 2023). Participatory and transdisciplinary research approaches that involve local stakeholders are crucial for developing and promoting sustainable yam production practices (Gokul et al., 2023). These insights can be applied more broadly to enhance yam yields in other regions with similar agro-ecological conditions, thereby improving food security and livelihoods for smallholder farmers.

8 Concluding Remarks

This study highlights the significant impact of integrated agronomic practices on yam productivity. Key insights include the effectiveness of soil management through organic and inorganic fertilization, crop rotation with legumes, and appropriate planting density, which together improve soil health, nutrient availability, and yam yield. Additionally, adaptive climate-resilient practices, such as mulching and conservation tillage, have been shown to mitigate the adverse effects of erratic rainfall and drought on yam production, especially in climate-sensitive regions. Technological innovations, including precision agriculture and genomic research, also present new possibilities for improving yield potential and disease resistance in yams, furthering the crop’s resilience and economic value.

Future research should focus on refining and optimizing the application of integrated soil management and conservation practices tailored to specific ecological zones. For instance, studies on crop rotations that incorporate various legumes may uncover optimal combinations for soil fertility and yam yield sustainability across different environments. Furthermore, expanding the use of precision agriculture tools, such as soil sensors and data analytics, can help refine resource use efficiency and yield predictions in yam farming. Research on breeding yam varieties with greater resilience to pests, drought, and low soil fertility should continue, utilizing genomic tools to develop cultivars that require fewer inputs and exhibit high productivity under sub-optimal conditions.

The implementation of comprehensive agronomic practices not only enhances yam productivity but also contributes to food security and poverty reduction in yam-producing regions. By increasing yields sustainably, these practices support the economic stability of smallholder farmers and improve the livelihoods of rural communities reliant on yam as a staple crop. Moreover, as yam demand grows globally due to its nutritional and cultural value, effective agronomic practices enable a more resilient and efficient supply chain. This development-oriented approach in yam agronomy ultimately aligns with broader goals of sustainable agriculture, offering a pathway to address food security challenges in an increasingly climate-affected world.

Funding

This study was supported by the Yam-Wheat Rotation Cultivation Model and Post-Harvest Processing Demonstration Project (Zhejiang Agricultural Science and Technology Development [2024] No. 9).

Acknowledgment

The authors express gratitude to Professor X. Wang for reviewing the manuscript and providing valuable suggestions for revision.The authors also thank the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions for the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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