1 Introduction

Ficus carica L., commonly known as the fig, is one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees and is highly valued for its historical, agricultural, and medicinal significance (Falistocco, 2020). It is a flowering plants belongs to the Ficus genus in the family of Moraceae, recognized for its distinctive fruit, which is botanically classified as a syconium, an enclosed inflorescence (Nair et al., 2021). Native to the Mediterranean region and southwestern Asia, Ficus carica has spread widely across the world due to its adaptability and economic value. For centuries, the fig has been cultivated not only for its edible fruit but also for its ecological role and its ability to adapt to various environmental conditions.

The fig (Ficus carica L.) tree is a deciduous species that can grow up to 10 meters tall (Hiwale and Hiwale, 2015). It is characterized by its smooth white bark, large palmate leaves, and a unique fruiting mechanism that involves a complex mutualistic relationship with fig wasps. The study found that the reproduction of figs relies on a symbiotic relationship with pollinating wasps (Blastophaga psenes). This biological mechanism is highly complex and an integral part of the fig ecosystem (Falistocco, 2020). The tree's adaptability to various climates and soil types has enabled it to thrive in a range of ecological zones, from semi-arid regions to temperate climates. Figs are valued not only for their delicious yet highly perishable fresh fruit but also for their various processed forms, such as dried figs, fig syrup, jams, jellies, spices, or preserved fig paste and fig pulp. Historically, figs have been esteemed for their nutritional and medicinal properties, making them an ancient and important source of food and health benefits (Barolo et al., 2014).

Understanding the botanical characteristics of the fig tree is crucial for optimizing its agricultural production, improving its resistance to environmental stress, and enhancing its ecological contributions. The fig tree's drought tolerance, adaptability to various soil conditions, and ability to grow in diverse climates make it an ideal subject for research, especially in the context of climate change and sustainable agriculture (Liu et al., 2012; Ammar et al., 2020). Figs are rich in nutrients, particularly high in iron and copper, making them a valuable food source (Hiwale and Hiwale, 2015). The historical and ongoing use of figs in traditional medicine highlights their potential as a new and diverse source of bioactive compounds with significant medicinal properties (Barolo et al., 2014). Studying its botanical features can offer insights into its growth patterns, reproductive biology, and cultivation potential in various environments. Furthermore, the fig tree plays a vital role in biodiversity conservation, acting as a keystone species in many ecosystems, providing food and habitat for numerous organisms. Investigating its ecological adaptability can help explore the potential for expanding fig cultivation in regions facing environmental challenges.

This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the botanical characteristics and ecological adaptability of fig (Ficus carica L.), covering its morphological structure, growth habits, and reproductive features, with a particular focus on its adaptation mechanisms in drought and nutrient-poor environments. The study integrates current findings on the morphology, physiology, and ecological functions of figs, highlighting their importance in agriculture, ecology, and economics. This study seeks to enhance fig production levels, explore new uses for this ancient and versatile plant, and deepen the understanding of its role in food security, health, and sustainable agriculture.

2 Morphological Characteristics of Ficus carica

2.1 Tree structure

Ficus carica L. is a deciduous tree or large shrub that typically grows to a height of 3 to 10 meters. Its trunk is usually short and stout, supporting a broad crown. The bark is smooth and grayish-brown, developing longitudinal fissures as the tree ages. The branches are thick, fleshy, and highly flexible, exuding a milky latex when damaged, which is characteristic of the Moraceae family. The branches can spread extensively, covering a large area. This structural adaptability helps maximize sunlight capture and improve photosynthetic efficiency (Khadivi et al., 2018; Nuzzo et al., 2022).

The leaves of Ficus carica L. exhibit significant morphological variability. They are generally large, lobed, and have a rough texture. Leaf length can range from 62.20 mm to 138.00 mm, while leaf width varies from 41.00 mm to 153.00 mm, indicating a high level of phenotypic diversity among different genotypes (Khadivi et al., 2018). This variability in leaf morphology aids in the tree's adaptability to different environmental conditions, enhancing its survival and growth in diverse habitats (Khadivi et al., 2018; Nuzzo et al., 2022).

2.2 Root system

The root system of Ficus carica is typically extensive and shallow, consisting of both a primary taproot and a well-developed network of lateral roots. This root architecture provides strong anchorage and efficient nutrient and water uptake from the soil (Hong et al., 2020; Ling et al., 2022). Studies have shown that in well-drained soils, the taproot of Ficus carica can penetrate deeply, providing stability to the tree and drawing water from deep underground sources, which is crucial for the survival of fig trees during drought seasons (Ammar et al., 2020). In contrast, the lateral roots spread extensively just below the soil surface, allowing the tree to efficiently utilize water from light rains and absorb nutrients from the upper soil layers.

Additionally, the root system of fig trees is highly adaptable to various soil types and moisture levels, including sandy, loamy, and even rocky soils. A study showed that fig trees exhibited good growth performance in sandy soils (BRIS soil) under the tropical climate of Malaysia (Azmi et al., 2020). Ma et al. (2020) found that in rocky soils with lower moisture levels, the radial expansion of fig tree roots was significantly greater than their depth distribution in deeper soils, ensuring effective resource absorption. This adaptability enables fig trees to thrive in a wide range of environmental conditions, from arid and semi-arid to humid subtropical regions (Hong et al., 2020; Ling et al., 2022).

2.3 Fruit morphology

The fruit of the Ficus carica, known as a syconium, is a specialized inflorescence structure that forms an enclosed, fleshy cavity. This enclosed structure protects the developing seeds, facilitating their successful maturation (Khadivi et al., 2018; Ling et al., 2022). At the apex, there is a small opening called the ostiole. Inside the fruit, numerous tiny flowers are housed, which develop into small drupelets upon pollination (Nair et al., 2021).

The shape of the fig fruit can vary from oblong to pear-shaped, with a typical length ranging from 2 to 10 cm. The skin is thin and smooth, displaying colors such as green, purple, or black, depending on the cultivar and ripeness (Khadivi and Mirheidari, 2022). As the fruit matures, the flesh softens and its sweetness increases due to the accumulation of sugars. The ripening process involves complex biochemical changes, including the breakdown of cell walls, the conversion of starches into simple sugars, and the production of aromatic compounds, which attract animals to disperse the fruit. This adaptation enhances the reproductive success of fig trees by encouraging seed dispersal through frugivorous animals (Khadivi et al., 2018; Ling et al., 2022).

2.4 Seed morphology and dispersal mechanisms

The seeds of Ficus carica are small and numerous, typically less than 2 mm in length, encased within the tiny drupelets inside the syconium. Each seed contains a small embryo and minimal endosperm, allowing for rapid germination after dispersal (Bougdaoua and Mtili, 2022). The germination rate of fig seeds is high due to their hard outer shell, which protects the embryo and ensures successful germination under suitable conditions. This characteristic is crucial for the reproduction and spread of the species (Khadivi et al., 2018; Ling et al., 2022).

Fig seeds dispersal primarily rely on animals such as birds, bats, and mammals, which consume the mature syconium and excrete the seeds at new locations, often far from the parent tree (Nakabayashi et al., 2019). Additionally, the seeds exhibit some degree of dormancy, enabling them to germinate when conditions become favorable. 

3 Growth and Reproductive Traits of Ficus carica

3.1 Growth stages: from seedling to maturity

Ficus carica undergoes several distinct growth stages from seedling to maturity. During the seedling stage, the plant exhibits slow growth, primarily developing its primary root system and producing the first true leaves. This stage is crucial for establishing the root structure and overall plant health. The juvenile stage is characterized by rapid vegetative growth, with the formation of lateral branches and an increase in leaf area (Ma et al., 2020). During this period, the tree focuses on building a strong structural framework to support future fruit production.

As the Ficus carica plant matures, it enters the vegetative growth phase, during which it develops a more extensive root system and a robust stem structure. This stage is essential for establishing the plant's framework and preparing it for future reproductive activities. The final stage is the reproductive phase, where the fig tree begins to flower and produce fruit. This phase is marked by the development of syconia, a unique inflorescence structure in figs that contains internal flowers (Zolfaghari et al., 2019; Gabibova, 2020). The duration of each growth stage varies depending on environmental conditions and cultivar, with most Ficus carica trees reaching reproductive maturity within 3 to 5 years.

3.2 Vegetative propagation methods and advantages

Vegetative propagation is a widely used method for cultivating Ficus carica due to its efficiency and reliability. The most common techniques include cutting, grafting, and tissue culture. Cutting involves taking a segment of a mature fig tree and allowing it to root, which is the most commercially viable method due to its simplicity and high success rate (Boliani et al., 2019). Grafting, although not commonly used, can effectively combine the desirable traits of different varieties. Research has shown that grafting can produce plants with ideal characteristics in a relatively short time, which plays a significant role in the conservation of genetic resources and the establishment of high-quality orchards (Teja et al., 2023).

Tissue culture or micropropagation is a more advanced method that allows for the large-scale production of uniform and disease-free seedlings. This technique is particularly successful in producing high-quality seedlings and has a high survival rate during the acclimatization process (Abdolinejad et al., 2020; Hong et al., 2020; Ling et al., 2022). For example, Abdolinejad et al. (2020) employed various tissue culture techniques, including thin cell layer (TCL) technology and somatic embryogenesis. These techniques not only improved the regeneration efficiency of figs but also confirmed the genetic consistency of the regenerated plants through flow cytometry and ISSR markers.

3.3 Seed reproduction: pollination and fruit set

Ficus carica has a unique reproductive strategy that involves a highly specialized mutualistic relationship with the fig wasp Blastophaga psenes. This complex interaction is essential for the successful production of seeds and the formation of viable fruits. The fig wasp enters the syconium, a specialized inflorescence structure unique to figs, through a small opening called the ostiole. Inside the syconium, the wasp pollinates the short-styled female flowers while also laying eggs in some of them (Falistocco, 2020). The pollinated flowers develop into seeds, while those in which eggs are laid form galls that provide a habitat for the developing wasp larvae. This intricate pollination process is crucial for the reproductive success of Ficus carica, especially for wild-type figs, also known as caprifigs, as they require pollination for seed development (Figure 1) (Proffit et al., 2020). Although many edible fig varieties produce parthenocarpic fruits, which develop without pollination or fertilization, pollination can still enhance the quality and size of the fruit. Pollinated figs tend to be fuller and have a better flavor compared to non-pollinated ones.

The success of pollination is influenced by several factors, including the population of Blastophaga psenes, climatic conditions, and the synchronization between the flowering of fig trees and the life cycle of the wasps. Favorable environmental conditions, such as moderate temperatures and stable humidity levels, promote wasp activity and increase the likelihood of successful pollination. In contrast, extreme weather conditions can disrupt this delicate balance, leading to reduced seed set and fruit quality (Boliani et al., 2019; Zolfaghari et al., 2019).

4 Ecological Adaptability of Ficus carica in Arid and Barren Environments

4.1 Drought resistance mechanisms

Ficus carica exhibits several structural and physiological adaptations to withstand drought conditions. One key mechanism is leaf abscission, which reduces water loss by shedding leaves during periods of water stress. This was observed in Tunisian fig cultivars, where drought stress led to significant decreases in photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate, along with increased leaf temperature and massive leaf abscission. Upon rehydration, these plants showed recovery in photosynthetic function and vegetative growth, indicating a robust drought avoidance strategy (Ammar et al., 2020). 

Additionally, Abdolinejad and Shekafandeh (2022) found that tetraploid figs exhibited superior performance in various physiological and biochemical defense mechanisms compared to diploids. The experiment utilized different concentrations of polyethylene glycol (PEG) to simulate drought stress, revealing that tetraploid genotypes were able to maintain higher relative water content (RWC) and lower ion leakage under high-intensity (15%-25% PEG) stress, whereas diploid genotypes showed a significant decrease in survival rate at 15% PEG stress (Figure 2). These tetraploids maintained higher RWC and enhanced osmotic adjustment by increasing the levels of stress response hormones and osmolytes, such as proline and glycine betaine, thereby sustaining cell turgor and protecting cellular structures under drought conditions (Abdolinejad and Shekafandeh, 2022).

4.2 Water use efficiency

Ficus carica demonstrates efficient water use strategies to survive in low-water environments. Under drought stress, the fig tree adjusts its physiological processes to optimize water use efficiency (WUE). For instance, drought-stressed fig plants show reduced stomatal conductance and transpiration rates, which help in conserving water. Elevated CO₂ levels further enhance WUE by improving photosynthetic rates and reducing water loss through stomata. This dual response to water stress and elevated CO₂ helps Ficus carica maintain its physiological and metabolic activities, thereby ensuring survival in arid conditions (Mardinata et al., 2021). Moreover, the ability of tetraploid fig genotypes to maintain higher relative water content and lower ion leakage under water stress conditions also contributes to their improved water use efficiency (Abdolinejad and Shekafandeh, 2022).

4.3 Adaptation to nutrient-poor soils

In nutrient-poor soils, Ficus carica employs several strategies to enhance nutrient uptake and utilization. One significant adaptation is the symbiotic association with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). These fungi enhance the fig tree's ability to absorb water and essential nutrients, such as phosphorus, potassium, and calcium, from the soil. This symbiotic relationship not only improves nutrient acquisition but also boosts the plant's drought tolerance by enhancing its physiological and biochemical responses to water stress (Boutasknit et al., 2020; Madouh and Quoreshi, 2023). The increased levels of osmolytes and antioxidant enzymes in tetraploid fig genotypes under drought conditions also suggest a robust biochemical adaptation that helps in mitigating the adverse effects of nutrient deficiency and water stress (Abdolinejad and Shekafandeh, 2022).

4.4 Interaction with other species in arid environments

Ficus carica interacts with various species in arid environments, which can influence its adaptability and survival. The presence of AMF, for example, plays a crucial role in mediating drought tolerance and recovery in fig trees by regulating stomatal conductance, water relations, and nutrient uptake. These fungi help in maintaining higher water content and reducing oxidative damage during drought stress, thereby enhancing the overall resilience of the fig tree in arid conditions (Boutasknit et al., 2020; Madouh and Quoreshi, 2023). 

Study has shown that the interaction with other plant species, such as the invasive Opuntia ficus-indica, which also exhibits high phenotypic plasticity and drought tolerance, can impact the ecological dynamics and resource availability in arid ecosystems (Tesfay et al., 2023). Understanding these interactions is essential for developing strategies to manage and conserve Ficus carica in its natural habitats. 

5 Case Studies

5.1 Impact of climate change and pests on fig yield

Fig cultivation has a long history in the Mediterranean region, providing significant support for local economic and social development. However, in recent years, this region has experienced significant climate changes, particularly rising temperatures and decreasing precipitation, which pose threats to fig yield and health (Mellal et al., 2023). At the same time, the rapid spread of pests has exacerbated this issue, challenging the livelihoods of local farmers and agricultural sustainability.

Mellal et al. (2023) analyzed the combined effects of climate change and pests on fig yield in Bejaïa Province, Algeria. The results showed that, over the past decade, the annual average temperature in the region increased at a rate of 0.057 °C per year, while annual precipitation decreased by 27.1 mm per year. In terms of pests, 11 types were recorded, including the fungi Diaporthe cinerascens and Fusarium spp., which cause severe damage, as well as the bark beetle Hypocryphalus scabricollis (Gaaliche et al., 2018; Bolboli et al., 2024). These pests spread significantly during the study period, with the number of affected communes increasing from 1 in 2011 to 15 in 2022. Yield analysis showed that the yield per fig tree decreased by 25%, closely related to pest infestations and reduced precipitation. This trend reveals the severe impact of the synergistic effects of climate change and pests on fig cultivation (Figure 3). The study suggests adopting sustainable agricultural management strategies, such as enhanced pest monitoring and improved irrigation systems, to mitigate the dual pressures brought by climate change and pests. 

5.2 Physiological responses and adaptation mechanisms of fig genotypes under water deficit conditions

With the intensification of global climate change and water scarcity issues, studying the physiological response mechanisms of fig trees under water deficit conditions is crucial for optimizing cultivation management and improving crop yield (Ammar et al., 2020). Especially in arid and semi-arid regions, figs have become an important alternative crop due to their unique drought-resistant mechanisms.

del Rosario Jacobo-Salcedo et al. (2024) analyzed the drought tolerance differences between fig germplasm resources (such as "Guadalupe Victoria") and the commercial variety "Black Mission" under water deficit conditions by measuring physiological and biochemical indicators such as relative water content (RWC), photosynthetic rate (PN), stomatal conductance (gs), intercellular CO₂ concentration (Ci), transpiration rate (E), proline (Pro), and soluble sugar content (SSC). The study showed that "Guadalupe Victoria" maintained a higher photosynthetic rate and relative water content under drought conditions, demonstrating strong drought tolerance. This genotype accumulated more proline under drought stress, which helps regulate cell osmotic pressure and maintain cell function. Additionally, the study found that proper stomatal regulation and the accumulation of soluble sugars also play important roles in the drought tolerance of figs.

The significant physiological response differences among various fig genotypes under water deficit conditions indicate that analyzing these physiological and biochemical markers can effectively identify genotypes with strong drought tolerance, providing a scientific basis for achieving sustainable fig production in water-limited environments. These findings will strongly support future breeding for drought resistance and the formulation of crop management strategies.

5.3 Chemical signaling in the mutualistic relationship between fig trees and Blastophaga psenes

The fig tree (Ficus carica) and its specific pollinator Blastophaga psenes form a complex mutualistic relationship. Fig pollination relies on B. psenes, while the larvae of B. psenes feed on fig pollen (Falistocco, 2020; Proffit et al., 2020). Researchers have discovered through chemical analysis and behavioral experiments that specific ratios of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) play a critical role in this specialized interaction (Proffit et al., 2020).

Proffit et al. (2020) analyzed 26 VOCs emitted by fig trees and found that only five compounds elicited electrophysiological responses in the antennae of B. psenes. These include benzyl alcohol and four monoterpenes, such as (S)-linalool and (Z)-linalool oxide. Behavioral tests indicated that B. psenes has a significant preference for a specific blend of these five compounds, and even slight changes in their proportions greatly reduce their attractiveness (Figure 4). This mimicry of chemical signals helps sustain the relationship between fig trees and wasps. The study suggests that fig trees successfully attract their specialized pollinator by adjusting the proportions of VOCs rather than their types, highlighting the importance of chemical signaling in plant-pollinator interactions. This finding provides new insights into understanding other complex plant-pollinator relationships.

The figure compares the preference of B. psenes in Y-tube olfactometer tests when exposed to single compounds, a specific VOC blend with a fixed ratio (B1), and control conditions. The results show that B. psenes exhibits a significant preference for the specific blend of four VOCs, including benzyl alcohol and (S)-linalool (B1), while no significant preference is observed for single compounds or other mixtures with different ratios, which are even less attractive than benzyl alcohol alone (Proffit et al., 2020). This indicates that B. psenes requires a specific proportion of VOCs to effectively locate its host plant, highlighting the importance of precise chemical signaling in the mutualistic relationship between plants and pollinators.

6 Ecological Interactions of Ficus carica with its Environment

6.1 Role of Ficus carica in maintaining biodiversity

Ficus carica plays a significant role in maintaining biodiversity within its ecosystem. The tree supports a diverse community of endophytic fungi, which includes genera such as Alternaria, Cladosporium, and Curvularia. These fungal endophytes exhibit antimicrobial properties and biotransforming abilities, contributing to the ecological balance by inhibiting pathogenic microorganisms and metabolizing plant compounds (Barolo et al., 2023). 

Additionally, the presence of mycorrhizal fungi in the root systems of Ficus carica enhances nutrient uptake and stress tolerance, which in turn supports the growth and survival of various plant species in the surrounding area (Tedersoo et al., 2020; Caruso et al., 2021). This mutualistic relationship between Ficus carica and mycorrhizal fungi fosters a stable and diverse plant community, promoting overall ecosystem health.

6.2 Interactions with soil microorganisms: symbiosis with mycorrhizae

Ficus carica forms symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, which are crucial for its nutrient acquisition and stress adaptation. These fungi colonize the roots of Ficus carica, facilitating the uptake of essential nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen in exchange for photosynthetically derived carbon from the plant (Genre et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2022). The mycorrhizal symbiosis not only enhances the nutrient status of Ficus carica but also improves soil structure and ecosystem functionality by influencing soil microbial communities (Mello and Balestrini, 2018). The presence of mycorrhizal fungi, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), has been shown to positively affect the root architecture of Ficus carica, leading to increased root length and mass, which further enhances the plant's ability to exploit soil resources (Caruso et al., 2021). This intricate interaction between Ficus carica and mycorrhizal fungi underscores the importance of these symbiotic relationships in maintaining soil health and plant productivity.

6.3 Influence on surrounding vegetation and wildlife

Ficus carica exerts a significant influence on the surrounding vegetation and wildlife through its root exudates and interactions with soil microorganisms. Studies have shown that the root extracts of Ficus carica can promote the growth of neighboring plants, such as Taxus cuspidata, by altering soil microbial diversity and increasing the abundance of growth-promoting bacteria while reducing pathogenic bacteria (Li et al., 2023). This allelopathic effect is primarily mediated by the chemicals secreted by Ficus carica roots, which interact with soil microorganisms to create a favorable environment for plant growth. Furthermore, the extensive mycorrhizal networks associated with Ficus carica roots facilitate nutrient transfer and communication between plants, thereby enhancing plant community dynamics and stability (Tedersoo et al., 2020). The presence of Ficus carica also supports a diverse array of wildlife, including various insect species that rely on the tree for food and habitat, further contributing to the ecological richness of the area.

Ficus carica plays a pivotal role in maintaining biodiversity, fostering symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, and influencing the growth and health of surrounding vegetation and wildlife. These ecological interactions highlight the importance of Ficus carica in sustaining and enhancing ecosystem functions.

7 Role of Ficus carica in Agroforestry and Sustainable Practices

7.1 Contribution to sustainable agricultural practices

Ficus carica also plays a significant role in sustainable agricultural practices, particularly within agroforestry systems. Agroforestry integrates trees with crops and livestock, promoting efficient resource utilization and enhancing soil health. The inclusion of fig trees in agroforestry systems can improve soil fertility, structure, and biodiversity, which are crucial for sustainable agriculture (Kuyah et al., 2019; Udawatta et al., 2019; Fahad et al., 2022). The deep root systems of fig trees help in nutrient cycling and water retention, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and irrigation (Fahad et al., 2022). Additionally, fig trees provide shade and microclimate regulation, which can protect crops from extreme weather conditions and improve overall farm resilience (Kuyah et al., 2019; Tschora and Cherubini, 2020).

7.2 Potential for use in soil conservation and reforestation projects

Ficus carica is highly effective in soil conservation and reforestation efforts due to its robust root system and adaptability to various soil types. It was reported that the roots of fig trees help in binding soil particles together, thereby reducing soil erosion and runoff (Rafidison et al., 2020; Fahad et al., 2022). This characteristic makes fig trees suitable for planting in degraded lands and areas prone to erosion. Moreover, fig trees can be used in reforestation projects to restore ecological balance and improve soil health. Their ability to thrive in diverse climatic conditions, including arid and semi-arid regions, makes them an excellent choice for reforestation initiatives aimed at combating desertification and land degradation.

7.3 Economic and ecological benefits: food security and biodiversity

The cultivation of Ficus carica offers numerous economic and ecological benefits, contributing to food security and biodiversity. Economically, fig trees provide a valuable source of income for farmers through the sale of fresh and dried figs, which are rich in nutrients and have a high market demand (Ighbareyeh et al., 2018; Dalkılıç, 2022; Mellal et al., 2023). The fruit's nutritional value, including vitamins, minerals, and carbohydrates, supports local food security by providing a reliable food source (Dalkılıç, 2022). Ecologically, fig trees support biodiversity by providing habitat and food for various species, including birds and insects, which are essential for pollination and pest control (Udawatta et al., 2019; Rafidison et al., 2020; Castle et al., 2021). The presence of fig trees in agroforestry systems enhances the overall biodiversity of the landscape, promoting a healthier and more resilient ecosystem (Udawatta et al., 2019; Castle et al., 2021).

8 Concluding Remarks

Fig (Ficus carica L.), demonstrates remarkable adaptability to various environmental conditions, particularly in arid and saline environments. Studies have shown that certain cultivars exhibit high water-retention capabilities and resilience to drought conditions, making them suitable for cultivation in dry regions. Additionally, the fig's ability to thrive in diverse ecological settings, from the Mediterranean to Northwestern India, underscores its ecological versatility. The fig is also noted for its rich phytochemical composition, which includes bioactive compounds with significant pharmacological properties, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities. These attributes not only enhance its value in traditional medicine but also highlight its potential in modern pharmacological applications.

Despite the extensive research on Ficus carica, several gaps remain. There is a need for more comprehensive studies on the molecular mechanisms underlying its adaptability to salinity and drought stress. For instance, while transcriptome analysis has provided insights into the fig's response to salinity, further research is required to identify and characterize the specific genes involved in these stress responses. Additionally, the ecological interactions between Ficus carica and its endophytic fungal communities, which contribute to its resilience and antimicrobial properties, warrant deeper investigation. Future research should also focus on optimizing propagation techniques to ensure the production of high-quality, disease-free seedlings, which is crucial for sustainable fig cultivation.

The adaptability of Ficus carica to harsh environmental conditions makes it a valuable crop for arid and semi-arid regions. Cultivars with high drought and salinity tolerance can be promoted for large-scale plantations in these areas, contributing to food security and economic stability. In conservation efforts, the fig's ability to grow in diverse habitats can be leveraged to restore degraded lands and maintain biodiversity, particularly in regions where it is native or naturalized. Moreover, the fig's aesthetic appeal and low maintenance requirements make it an excellent choice for urban greening projects, where it can enhance urban biodiversity and provide ecological benefits such as shade and air purification.

Ficus carica L. stands out as a resilient and versatile species with significant ecological, agricultural, and pharmacological value. Its ability to adapt to various environmental stresses, coupled with its rich phytochemical profile, underscores its potential in multiple domains. However, to fully harness these benefits, continued research and development are essential. By addressing the existing research gaps and exploring new frontiers, we can optimize the cultivation and utilization of this remarkable species, ensuring its contribution to sustainable agriculture, conservation, and urban planning.

Acknowledgments 

We would like to thank Dr. Li from the Horticulture Research Group for reading the manuscript and providing suggestions for revisions, which helped make the manuscript clearer. We also express our gratitude to the two anonymous reviewers for their thorough evaluation and constructive suggestions for our manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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