1 Introduction

Tea (Camellia sinensis) is one of the most widely consumed beverages globally, second only to water, and holds significant economic, cultural, and health value (Ahmed et al., 2014; Xia et al., 2020). It is cultivated in over 50 countries, predominantly in the tropics and subtropics, under specific agro-climatic conditions (Hajiboland, 2017; Aditya et al., 2023). The tea industry is a major economic contributor in several countries, particularly in Asia and Africa, where it supports millions of livelihoods (Batool et al., 2022). The increasing global demand for tea, driven by its health benefits and cultural significance, underscores the importance of optimizing tea cultivation practices to meet both quality and quantity requirements (Huang and Chen, 2024).

The primary goal of high-yield tea cultivation is to enhance productivity while maintaining or improving the quality of tea leaves. This involves addressing several challenges, including environmental constraints such as water deficiency and climate change, which significantly impact tea production (Costa et al., 2007). Additionally, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, while necessary for high yields, poses environmental and health risks, necessitating the exploration of sustainable practices such as organic farming and integrated pest management (Deka et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021).

This study aims to systematically analyze current research findings on the ecological and agronomic aspects of high-yield tea cultivation. By conducting an in-depth examination of environmental conditions, nutritional requirements in tea production, pest and disease management strategies, and the impact of climate change on tea yield, this study seeks to identify sustainable cultivation practices that enhance tea yield and quality, and address the challenges and leveraging opportunities in high-yield tea cultivation, aspiring to provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors affecting tea yield and propose practical improvement strategies to advance sustainable practices in tea cultivation.

2 Ecological Factors Affecting Tea Plant Growth

2.1 Climate and temperature requirements

Tea plants (Camellia sinensis) are highly sensitive to climatic conditions, which significantly influence their growth, yield, and quality. Optimal tea cultivation requires specific temperature ranges, rainfall patterns, and overall climate conditions. Studies have shown that tea yield increases with elevated CO₂ levels, but this increment can be substantially affected by rising temperatures and uneven rainfall patterns (Jayasinghe and Kumar, 2021). High temperatures can lead to stress conditions, reducing the quality and yield of tea leaves. Conversely, moderate temperatures with ample cloud cover and fog, as observed in high mountainous regions of China, create an ideal microclimate for tea cultivation by maintaining high humidity and reducing temperature fluctuations.

Rainfall is another critical factor, as tea plants require well-distributed rainfall throughout the year. Inadequate or poorly distributed rainfall can lead to water stress, adversely affecting tea production. Climate change, characterized by altered rainfall patterns and increased frequency of extreme weather events, poses a significant threat to tea cultivation. Drought conditions, resulting from prolonged dry spells, can cause severe damage to tea plants, including wilting, leaf drop, and reduced yield. Therefore, understanding and adapting to the climatic requirements of tea plants is essential for sustainable tea production (Figure 1).

2.2 Soil properties and nutrient availability

The soil properties and nutrient availability are crucial for optimizing tea yields. Tea plants thrive in acidic soils with a pH range of 4.5 to 5.5, which supports the availability of essential nutrients (Hajiboland, 2017). Soil health, characterized by organic matter content, nutrient composition, and microbial activity, plays a significant role in tea plant growth. Long-term nitrogen fertilization has been shown to increase tea yield and amino acid content, although excessive nitrogen can lead to soil acidification and reduced microbial diversity (Ma et al., 2021). Optimal nitrogen application rates are essential to balance tea growth and soil health.

Agroecological management practices, such as the use of organic fertilizers, can enhance soil health by increasing soil organic matter and improving nutrient availability (Le et al., 2023). Organic fertilizers help mitigate soil acidification and nutrient deficiencies, promoting better tea yield and quality (Xie et al., 2018). Additionally, mulching practices, such as intercropping with Vulpia myuros, can improve soil properties by reducing soil temperature, increasing water retention, and enhancing soil enzyme activity (Zhang et al., 2020). These practices contribute to a healthier soil environment, supporting robust tea plant growth and higher yields.

2.3 Water management and irrigation

Water availability and irrigation practices are critical for maintaining tea plant health and productivity. Tea plants require consistent moisture levels, and water stress can significantly impact their growth and yield. Effective water management strategies, including rainwater harvesting and irrigation systems, are essential to mitigate the effects of drought and ensure adequate water supply (Rokhmah et al., 2022). Proper irrigation practices help maintain soil moisture levels, preventing water stress and promoting optimal tea plant growth.

In regions with variable rainfall patterns, supplemental irrigation can be crucial for sustaining tea production. Studies have shown that mulching practices, such as using rice straw or intercropping, can improve soil moisture retention and reduce the need for frequent irrigation (Zhang et al., 2020). These practices help maintain a stable moisture environment, supporting tea plant health and enhancing yield. Additionally, efficient water management practices can reduce the risk of waterlogging, which can adversely affect tea plant roots and overall plant health. Implementing sustainable water management and irrigation practices is vital for optimizing tea yields and ensuring the long-term viability of tea plantations.

3 Agronomic Practices for High-Yield Tea Cultivation

3.1 Pruning and shaping techniques

Pruning is a critical agronomic practice in tea cultivation, significantly influencing tea tree growth and yield. Studies have shown that pruning enhances the growth of tea plants by promoting the expression of genes involved in metabolic pathways such as fatty acid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and nitrogen metabolism, which are essential for plant growth and productivity. Additionally, pruning increases the leaf area, bud weight, and overall yield of tea plants by improving the physicochemical properties of the rhizosphere soil, such as pH and the availability of essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (Zhang et al., 2023). This practice also alters the microbial community structure in the soil, promoting beneficial microorganisms that enhance nutrient cycling and soil health (Zhang et al., 2023).

However, while pruning boosts yield, it can negatively impact the quality of tea leaves. Pruning has been found to reduce the synthesis and accumulation of quality-related compounds such as polyphenols, theanine, flavonoids, and free amino acids in tea leaves (Zhang et al., 2023). This reduction in quality compounds is attributed to changes in the soil microbial community and metabolic pathways induced by pruning. Therefore, while pruning is beneficial for increasing tea yield, it is essential to balance it with other practices to maintain the quality of tea leaves.

3.2 Fertilization strategies

Effective fertilization strategies are crucial for optimizing tea yield and maintaining plant health. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers play significant roles in tea cultivation. Long-term nitrogen fertilization has been shown to increase tea yield by enhancing chlorophyll synthesis and promoting the growth of tea plants (Chen et al., 2021). However, excessive nitrogen application can lead to soil acidification and reduced diversity of soil fungal communities, which can negatively impact soil health and sustainability (Yang et al., 2019). Therefore, it is essential to apply nitrogen fertilizers judiciously to balance yield and soil health.

Organic fertilizers, on the other hand, have been found to improve soil properties and tea yield. Replacing a portion of chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers can mitigate soil acidification, increase soil organic matter, and enhance the availability of essential nutrients like ammonium nitrogen (Xie et al., 2018). This practice not only promotes tea yield but also improves tea quality by increasing the content of beneficial compounds in tea leaves. Studies have shown that replacing chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers and eliminating the use of pesticides can maintain high tea yield and quality while reducing environmental pollution. Potassium fertilization is also critical, as it significantly improves tea yield and quality by enhancing the concentration of free amino acids, water-extractable dry matter, and total polyphenols in tea leaves (Ruan et al., 2013).

3.3 Pest and disease management

Sustainable pest and disease management practices are essential for maintaining high tea yield and ensuring ecological balance. Eliminating the use of chemical pesticides and integrating organic pest and disease control methods can effectively manage pests and diseases while minimizing environmental impacts. Studies have shown that eliminating pesticide use and replacing chemical fertilizers with organic alternatives can significantly reduce pesticide residues in tea leaves and minimize nutrient loss in runoff (Xie et al., 2018). This approach not only protects the environment but also maintains tea yield and quality.

Agroecological management practices, such as the use of natural predators and biopesticides, can also enhance pest and disease control in tea plantations. These practices improve soil health and biodiversity, which in turn supports the natural regulation of pest populations (Le et al., 2023). Additionally, maintaining a diverse microbial community in the soil through organic amendments and reduced chemical inputs can enhance the resilience of tea plants to pests and diseases. By adopting sustainable pest and disease management practices, tea growers can achieve high yields while preserving the ecological integrity of their plantations.

4 Impact of Environmental Sustainability on Tea Yield

4.1 Ecological footprint of tea cultivation

Intensive tea farming practices have significant ecological footprints, primarily due to the extensive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and mechanized farming techniques. These practices lead to soil degradation, water pollution, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, conventional tea cultivation in Northern Vietnam has been shown to degrade soil health and increase environmental pollution, despite providing higher yields compared to agroecological practices (Le et al., 2023). Similarly, intensive farming practices in Assam, India, have been linked to increased vulnerability of tea plantations to climate change, with higher temperatures and precipitation variability negatively impacting tea yields (Duncan et al., 2016).

Moreover, the environmental impact of tea cultivation is not limited to soil degradation. Tea-planted soils are significant sources of nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, a potent greenhouse gas. A global meta-analysis revealed that tea plantations emit substantially higher levels of N₂O compared to cereal croplands, highlighting the need for climate-smart agricultural practices in tea production (Wang et al., 2020). The high nitrogen fertilizer doses commonly used in tea farming contribute to soil acidification and increased N₂O emissions, further exacerbating the ecological footprint of tea cultivation.

4.2 Sustainable practices for high-yield farming

To minimize the ecological impacts of tea cultivation while maintaining high yields, several sustainable practices have been proposed and implemented. Agroecological management practices, such as those studied in Northern Vietnam, have shown promise in enhancing soil health and providing economic benefits to farmers. These practices include the use of organic fertilizers, crop rotation, and reduced chemical inputs, which collectively improve soil organic matter, pH, and biological activity (Le et al., 2023). Despite slightly lower yields, farmers adopting agroecological practices earned significantly higher net incomes compared to those using conventional methods.

Another approach to sustainable tea farming is the integration of agroforestry systems, which combine tea cultivation with the planting of trees and other crops. This practice not only diversifies income sources for farmers but also improves soil health, reduces erosion, and enhances biodiversity. An agroforestry landscape in a tea plantation in Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, integrates the cultivation of tea plants with other vegetation, enhancing the aesthetic appeal while effectively improving soil health and ecological diversity (Figure 2). In Bangladesh, land suitability assessments using GIS and remote sensing have identified areas where agroforestry can be effectively implemented to support sustainable tea production (Das et al., 2020). Additionally, organic farming practices, including the use of locally sourced organic fertilizers and improved harvesting techniques, have been shown to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve the sustainability of tea production (Rigarlsford et al., 2020).

5 Innovations in Tea Cultivation Technology

5.1 Precision agriculture and digital tools

Precision agriculture (PA) has emerged as a transformative approach in tea cultivation, leveraging modern information and communication technologies to enhance farm management. PA tools enable site-specific management of tea plantations, optimizing resource use and minimizing environmental impacts. For instance, the use of digital tools for monitoring soil health, weather forecasting, and yield estimation has shown significant promise in improving tea production efficiency. A systematic review of state-of-the-art technologies in PA highlights the benefits of these innovations, including reduced resource wastage and pollution, which contribute to sustainable agricultural practices (Bhakta et al., 2019). By integrating sensors and data analytics, tea farmers can make informed decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and pest control, thereby enhancing both yield and quality.

Moreover, the application of PA in tea cultivation can address specific challenges such as soil health degradation and nutrient management. Studies have demonstrated that agroecological management practices, which are often supported by PA tools, can significantly improve soil organic matter and pH levels, leading to better tea yields and quality (Le et al., 2023). Additionally, the dual reduction of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, facilitated by precise monitoring and application, has been shown to mitigate nutrient loss and environmental hazards while maintaining tea yield and quality (Xie et al., 2018). These advancements underscore the potential of PA and digital tools in revolutionizing tea cultivation by promoting ecological sustainability and economic efficiency.

5.2 Mechanization and automation in tea harvesting

The mechanization and automation of tea leaf harvesting have significantly impacted the production efficiency and labor productivity of tea plantations. Traditional manual harvesting methods are labor-intensive and time-consuming, often resulting in inconsistent yield and quality (Figure 3). However, recent advancements in tea harvesting technology have introduced automated systems that can perform precise and efficient plucking, thereby enhancing overall productivity (Rutatina and Corley, 2018). For example, the use of mechanical harvesters has been shown to optimize the plucking intervals and improve yield consistency across different tea-growing regions. These technologies not only reduce the dependency on manual labor but also ensure that the tea leaves are harvested at the optimal time for quality and flavor.

The impact of mechanization on labor efficiency is particularly noteworthy in regions where labor shortages are a significant concern. Automated harvesting systems can alleviate the burden on the workforce, allowing for more efficient allocation of labor resources to other critical tasks in tea production. Furthermore, the integration of mechanization with precision agriculture tools can enhance the overall management of tea plantations. For instance, the combination of automated harvesters with soil and weather monitoring systems can provide real-time data to optimize harvesting schedules and improve yield outcomes (Bhakta et al., 2019). This synergy between mechanization and digital tools represents a significant leap forward in modernizing tea cultivation practices, ensuring higher productivity and sustainability.

6 Case Study: High-Yield Cultivation Practices for Longjing Tea in Zhejiang Province

6.1 Case selection and background

Zhejiang Province, particularly the region around Hangzhou, is renowned for its production of Longjing tea, one of the most famous and premium green teas in China. The selection of this region for a case study on high-yield cultivation practices is based on its historical and contemporary success in tea production. The Tea Research Institute in Hangzhou has conducted extensive research and trials to optimize tea yields, making it an ideal location to study advanced agronomic practices. Additionally, the region's unique climatic conditions and soil properties contribute to the high quality and yield of Longjing tea, further justifying its selection for this case study (Lou et al., 2015).

The rationale for focusing on Zhejiang Province also includes the significant economic impact of tea cultivation in the area. The local government has implemented various measures to promote the tea industry, which has resulted in increased agricultural income and improved livelihoods for farmers. Moreover, the region's long history of tea cultivation provides a rich context for understanding the evolution of agronomic practices and their ecological implications.

6.2 Agronomic and ecological insights

The high-yield cultivation of Longjing tea in Zhejiang Province involves several specific agronomic practices. One of the key strategies is the use of high planting densities, which has been shown to significantly increase tea yields. A ten-year trial conducted by the Tea Research Institute demonstrated that high-density planting of the Longjing 43 variety resulted in yields more than ten times greater than the provincial average. This practice, combined with the use of vegetatively-propagated clonal varieties, ensures consistent and high-quality tea production.

Ecologically, the region faces challenges related to soil nutrient management and pesticide use. Excessive application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has led to environmental concerns, including soil acidification and nutrient runoff (Xie et al., 2018). To address these issues, pilot studies have explored the dual reduction of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, replacing them with organic alternatives. These studies have shown that proper management with organic fertilizer replacement can mitigate soil acidification, increase soil organic matter, and improve tea yield and quality (Xie et al., 2018). Additionally, the use of high-spatiotemporal-resolution imagery has been employed to map tea plantations accurately, helping to monitor and manage ecological impacts such as soil erosion (Figure 4) (Li et al., 2019).

6.3 Outcomes and lessons learned

The outcomes of high-yield cultivation practices in Zhejiang Province have been largely positive, with significant increases in tea yield and quality. The implementation of high planting densities and the use of clonal varieties have proven effective in maximizing production. Furthermore, the dual reduction of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has not only maintained but also enhanced tea quality, while reducing environmental hazards. These practices have demonstrated that sustainable agronomic methods can achieve high yields without compromising ecological integrity.

Several lessons can be drawn from the experience in Zhejiang Province. The importance of adopting scientifically-backed agronomic practices, such as high-density planting and the use of clonal varieties, cannot be overstated. These methods have been critical in achieving high yields and can be applied to other tea-growing regions to improve productivity. Second, the integration of ecological considerations into agronomic practices is essential for sustainable tea cultivation. The success of organic fertilizer replacement and pesticide reduction in Zhejiang highlights the potential for similar approaches in other regions facing environmental challenges (Xie et al., 2018). Moreover, the use of advanced technologies, such as high-resolution imagery for plantation mapping, can enhance the management and monitoring of tea cultivation, ensuring both high yields and ecological sustainability (Li et al., 2019).

7 Economic Aspects of High-Yield Tea Cultivation

7.1 Cost-benefit analysis

The economic evaluation of high-yield tea cultivation techniques involves a detailed analysis of input costs versus returns. In Anji County, China, the rapid expansion of tea plantations from 1985 to 2016 has shown a significant increase in economic benefits. However, this expansion has also led to substantial ecological costs, particularly in terms of impaired water conservation services. The net economic benefit, despite being positive, fails to offset the ecological costs, which have increased dramatically over the years (Su et al., 2017). This indicates that while high-yield tea cultivation can be profitable, it often comes at a significant environmental cost.

In Northern Vietnam, a study comparing conventional and agroecological tea management practices found that although conventional methods resulted in higher yields, agroecological practices provided better net income for farmers. Specifically, agroecological tea adopters earned around USD 8 400 per hectare per year more than those practicing conventional management, despite lower yields. This suggests that sustainable practices can be economically viable and even more profitable in the long run due to reduced input costs and higher market prices for organic products (Le et al., 2023). Similarly, in Anxi, China, integrating organic fertilizers into tea production systems increased the emergy sustainability index significantly, although the economic output/input ratio was slightly lower compared to chemical fertilizer use (Zeng et al., 2013).

7.2 Market dynamics and pricing strategies

Market demand and pricing strategies play crucial roles in the economic viability of high-yield tea cultivation. The global increase in tea consumption, driven by the health benefits associated with tea, has led to higher market demand and better prices for high-quality tea products (Hajiboland, 2017). This trend provides economic incentives for farmers to adopt high-yield and sustainable cultivation practices. In Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province, China, a pilot study demonstrated that reducing chemical fertilizers and pesticides while maintaining high tea yields and quality can be achieved through proper management practices. This not only mitigates environmental hazards but also meets market demand for safer, high-quality tea products (Xie et al., 2018).

In Assam, India, small-scale tea growers who have transitioned to organic cultivation have found it to be economically sustainable. The yearly income from organic tea cultivation was higher than that from conventional methods, provided that the growers achieved stable yields. The introduction of an organic premium on green leaves could further enhance the economic benefits for these growers (Deka and Goswami, 2021). Additionally, the suitability evaluation of tea cultivation in Yingde, Guangdong, China, highlighted the importance of optimizing regional layouts and prioritizing areas with high suitability for tea cultivation. This strategic approach can help maximize economic returns while ensuring sustainable development (Chen et al., 2022).

8 Suggestions and Future Directions

To enhance high-yield tea plant cultivation, several strategies can be implemented. Adopting adaptive agronomic practices tailored to specific environmental conditions can mitigate the negative impacts of climate variability and improve overall tea yield. Furthermore, implementing sustainable soil management practices, such as using high-nutrient-efficiency tea varieties, can help maintain soil health and reduce nutrient degradation.

Future research should focus on comprehensive studies on the interaction between tea plants and multiple environmental factors to better understand their combined effects on yield and quality under real-world conditions. Technological advancements in precision agriculture, such as remote sensing and automated monitoring systems, can provide valuable data for optimizing tea cultivation practices and improving resource use efficiency.

The adoption of high-yield practices in global tea cultivation can have significant implications for the industry. By improving breeding programs and agronomic practices, tea producers can achieve higher yields and better quality, which can enhance economic returns and meet the growing demand for tea worldwide. Additionally, sustainable cultivation practices can contribute to environmental conservation and soil health, ensuring the long-term viability of tea plantations. The integration of advanced technologies and adaptive strategies can also help mitigate the adverse effects of climate change, ensuring stable tea production in diverse growing regions. 

Acknowledgments

The authors express deep gratitude to Professor R. Cai from the Zhejiang Agronomist College for his thorough review of the manuscript and constructive suggestions. The authors also extend thanks to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their valuable revision recommendations.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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