1 Introduction

Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) is a plant native to South America, particularly prevalent in countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The leaves and stems of this plant are traditionally used to prepare a stimulating beverage known as mate, which is consumed for its numerous health benefits and cultural significance. Yerba Mate is rich in bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, saponins, and xanthines, which contribute to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-lowering properties (Heck and Mejia, 2007; De Morais et al., 2009; Berté et al., 2011). The infusion made from Yerba Mate leaves is gaining popularity worldwide, not only as a traditional tea but also as an ingredient in various dietary supplements and functional foods (Heck and Mejia, 2007).

Yerba Mate has a long-standing cultural and historical significance in South America. Indigenous peoples, such as the Guarani and Tupi, have consumed Yerba Mate for centuries, using it as a social and medicinal beverage (Heck and Mejia, 2007). The traditional method of preparing and drinking mate involves a communal ritual where the beverage is shared among participants, symbolizing friendship and community. This practice has been passed down through generations and remains an integral part of social life in many South American countries. The cultural importance of Yerba Mate extends beyond its social aspects, as it is also revered for its purported health benefits, including its ability to stimulate the central nervous system, protect the liver, and support cardiovascular health (Heck and Mejia, 2007; Pimentel et al., 2013; Fayad et al., 2020).

This study aims to comprehensively examine the phytochemistry, health benefits, and cultural significance of Yerba Mate. This includes analyzing the chemical composition of Yerba Mate, with a focus on its bioactive compounds and their potential applications in therapeutic and nutritional medicines. The study summarizes the current scientific evidence on the health benefits of Yerba Mate, including its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, lipid-lowering, and antimicrobial properties. It explores the historical and cultural background of mate tea consumption in South America, highlighting its role in social rituals and traditional medicine. Additionally, it discusses the technical aspects of Yerba Mate processing and its potential applications in various food and beverage products. By integrating multiple studies, we aim to gain a comprehensive understanding of Yerba Mate, emphasizing its importance as a cultural symbol and a source of health-promoting compounds.

2 Phytochemistry of Yerba Mate

2.1 Key phytochemicals in Yerba Mate

Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) is rich in a variety of bioactive compounds, primarily polyphenols, xanthines, and saponins. The most notable polyphenols include caffeoylquinic acids such as 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid, and 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid, which are known for their antioxidant properties (Côrrea et al., 2017; Rząsa-Duran et al., 2022). Additionally, Yerba Mate contains significant amounts of flavonoids, such as rutin and quercetin, and other phenolic compounds like chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid (Gullón et al., 2018; Rząsa-Duran et al., 2022). The xanthines, including caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline, contribute to the stimulant effects of Yerba Mate (Heck and Mejia, 2007; Rząsa-Duran et al., 2022). Saponins, another class of compounds found in Yerba Mate, have been associated with anti-inflammatory and cholesterol-lowering effects (Elorriaga et al., 2015).

2.2 Comparative phytochemical analysis with other tea

When compared to other teas, such as green tea and black tea, Yerba Mate exhibits a unique phytochemical profile. While green tea is predominantly rich in catechins and black tea in theaflavins, Yerba Mate is particularly abundant in caffeoylquinic acids and saponins (Júnior and Morand, 2016; Rząsa-Duran et al., 2022). Studies have shown that the antioxidant capacity of Yerba Mate is comparable to that of green tea, primarily due to its high polyphenol content (Heck and Mejia, 2007; Rząsa-Duran et al., 2022). Moreover, the presence of saponins in Yerba Mate, which are not commonly found in significant amounts in other teas, provides additional health benefits such as lipid-lowering effects (Elorriaga et al., 2015).

2.3 Methods of phytochemical extraction and analysis

Various methods have been employed to extract and analyze the phytochemicals in Yerba Mate. Common extraction techniques include the use of solvents such as ethanol, methanol, and water, often optimized for maximum yield of phenolic and flavonoid compounds (Gullón et al., 2018). Advanced chromatographic techniques, such as High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) coupled with Mass Spectrometry (MS), are frequently used to identify and quantify the individual phytochemicals present in Yerba Mate (Matei et al., 2016). Additionally, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) have been utilized to characterize the functional properties and thermal stability of Yerba Mate extracts (Gullón et al., 2018). These methods ensure a comprehensive understanding of the phytochemical composition and potential health benefits of Yerba Mate.

3 Health Benefits of Yerba Mate

3.1 Antioxidant properties

Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) is renowned for its high antioxidant activity, primarily due to its rich content of polyphenols and other bioactive compounds. Studies have identified various antioxidant compounds in Yerba Mate, including neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid, which contribute to its potent antioxidant properties (Rząsa-Duran et al., 2022). Maiztegui et al. (2023) showed that rats in the experimental group that drank Yerba Mate tea had significantly increased plasma antioxidant capacity (FRAP levels) and significantly decreased oxidative stress markers (TBARS levels). The study indicates that Yerba Mate tea can reduce oxidative stress by enhancing antioxidant capacity, thereby improving insulin sensitivity and secretion, which in turn helps regulate blood glucose levels (Figure 1). Additionally, studies have found that even the waste products of mate tea retain high levels of phenolic and flavonoid compounds, further emphasizing its strong antioxidant capacity (Gullón et al., 2018). 

3.2 Cardiovascular health benefits

Regular consumption of Yerba Mate has been linked to improved cardiovascular health. Clinical trials have demonstrated that Yerba Mate intake can significantly increase serum levels of paraoxonase-1 (PON-1), an enzyme associated with antioxidant defense and cardiovascular protection (Balsan et al., 2019). Moreover, Yerba Mate consumption has been shown to reduce blood lipid concentrations, including total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides, while also lowering blood pressure in both normocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic individuals (Sarriá et al., 2020). These findings suggest that Yerba Mate can play a protective role against atherosclerotic diseases and overall cardiovascular risk.

3.3 Effects on metabolism and weight management

Yerba Mate has also been studied for its effects on metabolism and weight management. Ruskovska et al. (2022) found that consuming polyphenol-rich Yerba Mate extract may have cardiometabolic protective effects. In healthy middle-aged men who consumed standardized Yerba Mate extract for four weeks, significant changes in gene expression were observed, with 2,635 genes showing differential expression, including miRNA and lncRNA. Functional analysis indicated that these genes are involved in cell interaction and migration, inflammation, and cell signaling processes. The study suggests that Yerba Mate intake may promote cardiovascular health and potentially prevent metabolic diseases by modulating gene expression (Figure 2).

Another study found that mate tea can increase mitochondrial uncoupling in adipose tissue, potentially enhancing energy expenditure and resistance to weight gain (Walton et al., 2020). In a diabetic rat model, mate tea treatment improved various metabolic parameters, including serum glucose and muscle glucose uptake, highlighting its potential benefits in managing diabetes-related metabolic disorders (Rocha et al., 2018). 

4 Cultural Practices and Rituals

4.1 Traditional methods of Yerba Mate consumption

Yerba Mate, derived from the leaves of Ilex paraguariensis, is traditionally consumed in various forms across South America. The most common method involves steeping the dried leaves in water to prepare a beverage. This preparation is typically done in a hollowed-out gourd, called a "mate" or "calabash". The gourd is filled about two-thirds full with dried Yerba Mate leaves. Cold water is first added to moisten the leaves, followed by hot water, typically between 70 °C-80 °C, to brew the tea. The beverage is then consumed through a metal straw called a "bombilla" (Bastos et al., 2018; Rząsa-Duran et al., 2022). The bombilla acts as both a straw and a filter, inserted into the gourd to sip the drink without ingesting the leaves. In countries like Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, this method of consumption is deeply ingrained in daily life and cultural practices (Luís et al., 2019).

4.2 Social and ceremonial uses

Yerba mate holds significant social and ceremonial value in South American cultures. It is often shared among friends and family in a communal setting, symbolizing hospitality and social bonding. The practice of sharing mate, known as "mateada", is a symbol of friendship and community. During a mateada, the gourd is passed around in a circle, with each person taking a sip before refilling and passing it to the next participant. This ritual fosters social bonds and is often accompanied by conversation and storytelling (Samoggia et al., 2021). In addition to its social role, Yerba Mate is also used in various rituals and ceremonies, reflecting its cultural importance. For instance, in some indigenous communities, Yerba Mate is consumed during spiritual ceremonies to promote unity and well-being (Sousa et al., 2019).

4.3 Yerba Mate in modern South American culture

In contemporary South American culture, Yerba Mate continues to be a popular beverage, but its consumption has also evolved with modern lifestyles. While traditional methods of preparation and consumption remain prevalent, there is a growing trend of Yerba Mate being marketed and consumed in more convenient forms, such as ready-to-drink bottles and tea bags (Samoggia et al., 2021). This shift is partly driven by the beverage's health benefits, which have been widely promoted, leading to increased popularity not only in South America but also globally (Sarriá et al., 2020; Ruskovska et al., 2022). Despite these modern adaptations, the cultural significance of yerba mate as a symbol of social connection and tradition remains strong.

Yerba Mate’s integration into daily life, both in its traditional and modern forms, illustrates its enduring cultural importance. Whether shared in a communal setting or enjoyed individually, yerba mate continues to be a cornerstone of social interaction and cultural identity in South America.

5 Epidemiological and Clinical Studies

5.1 Population studies on Yerba Mate consumption

Several population studies have investigated the consumption of Yerba Mate and its health impacts. A systematic review of 32 studies highlighted consistent beneficial effects of Yerba Mate on metabolism, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities across different populations. These studies also noted improvements in body weight, exercise performance, mood, appetite, and cardio- and neuroprotective effects (José et al., 2023). Another study analyzed Yerba Mate products marketed in Brazil and found that the consumption of Yerba Mate is safe and contributes to the intake of essential nutrients, despite some concerns about cadmium levels (Ulbrich et al., 2021). Additionally, research on the elemental composition of Yerba Mate from various regions in Brazil indicated that Yerba Mate leaves could be a significant source of essential elements like manganese and zinc, although cadmium levels should be monitored (Motta et al., 2020).

5.2 Clinical trials assessing health impacts

Clinical trials provide more direct evidence of the health benefits of Yerba Mate tea. Balsan et al. (2019) conducted a randomized clinical trial involving 142 overweight or obese participants with dyslipidemia. The trial divided the 142 participants into three groups, instructing them to drink 1 liter of Yerba Mate tea, green tea, or apple tea (control group) daily for 8 weeks. The results showed that daily consumption of 1 liter of Yerba Mate tea significantly increased serum levels of paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) by 9.7% (p=0.005) and was positively correlated with an increase in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c), while no significant changes were observed in the green tea and control groups (Table 1). The study suggests that Yerba Mate tea has protective effects in terms of antioxidant capacity and preventing atherosclerosis. 

Another study involving rats demonstrated that Yerba Mate extracts and microparticles significantly enhanced antioxidant activities and reduced lipid peroxidation in plasma and brain tissues, suggesting potential neuroprotective benefits (Vargas et al., 2021). Furthermore, a systematic review of clinical trials and observational studies confirmed the positive effects of Yerba Mate on various physiological parameters, including metabolism and inflammation (José et al., 2023).

5.3 Limitations and gaps in current research

Despite the promising findings, there are several limitations and gaps in the current research on Yerba Mate. Many studies have a high risk of bias, and the overall certainty of evidence ranges from moderate to very low (José et al., 2023). Additionally, most clinical trials have small sample sizes and short durations, limiting the generalizability and long-term applicability of the results (Balsan et al., 2019; Vargas et al., 2021). There is also a need for more comprehensive studies on the potential toxicological effects of Yerba Mate, particularly concerning heavy metal contamination such as cadmium and lead (Motta et al., 2020; Ulbrich et al., 2021). Future research should focus on larger, long-term clinical trials with diverse populations to better understand the health impacts and safety of Yerba Mate consumption.

6 Economic Impact and Sustainability

6.1 Yerba Mate as an economic driver in South America

Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) plays a significant role in the economies of several South American countries, particularly Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. The cultivation and export of Yerba Mate have seen substantial growth, driven by increasing global demand for its health benefits and sustainable production practices. For instance, the value of Yerba Mate exports from Paraguay has surged due to its positioning as a product with health benefits and sustainable production, which has created a new dimension of demand based on credence attributes (Alwang et al., 2022). Additionally, Yerba Mate cultivation has been shown to be more profitable than other traditional crops such as soybeans in certain regions, providing a higher financial return over a longer period (Pedrassani et al., 2020).

6.2 Sustainable farming practices

Sustainable farming practices are crucial for the long-term viability of Yerba Mate production. In the northern plateau region of Santa Catarina, Brazil, the integration of Yerba Mate cultivation with socio-environmental conservation efforts has been studied. The extraction of Yerba Mate in this region supports socio-environmental conservation and family farming, highlighting the importance of sustainable management practices (Marques et al., 2019). Furthermore, the economic response to fertilization in Yerba Mate plantations has been positive, with fertilized sites showing higher productivity and economic viability compared to non-fertilized sites. This indicates that sustainable fertilization practices can enhance the economic returns of Yerba Mate farming while maintaining environmental health (Antonio-Bonfatti Junior et al., 2021).

6.3 Future trends in the global Yerba Mate market

The global Yerba Mate market is poised for continued growth, driven by increasing awareness of its health benefits and sustainable production methods. Innovations in the use of Yerba Mate, such as its inclusion in animal feed, have shown promising results, potentially opening new markets and applications. For example, the inclusion of Yerba Mate extract in the diet of growing lambs has been found to improve animal health and performance, suggesting potential for Yerba Mate in the livestock industry (Lobo et al., 2020). Additionally, the valorization of Yerba Mate waste as a source of antioxidant compounds presents an opportunity for sustainable resource utilization and added economic value (Gullón et al., 2018). As consumer demand for healthful and sustainably produced products continues to rise, the Yerba Mate market is expected to expand, offering new opportunities for economic development and sustainability in South America.

7 Innovations in Yerba Mate Products

7.1 Development of new Yerba Mate blends and products

The development of new Yerba Mate blends and products has been a significant area of innovation. Researchers have explored various extraction methods to enhance the bioactive compound content in Yerba Mate. For instance, supercritical CO₂ extraction with ethanol as a co-solvent has been used to obtain extracts rich in alkaloids and antioxidants, which can be utilized in nutraceutical and functional food products (Hegel et al., 2021). Additionally, the valorization of Yerba Mate waste has been investigated, revealing that the residues still possess high antioxidant potential, which can be harnessed for new product development (Gullón et al., 2018). Furthermore, different commercial Yerba Mate products have been analyzed for their phytochemical composition, showing that industrial processing aids in preserving polyphenols and flavonoids, which are crucial for developing high-quality Yerba Mate products (Pinto et al., 2021).

7.2 Health-oriented product innovations

Health-oriented innovations in Yerba Mate products focus on enhancing its beneficial properties. Studies have shown that regular consumption of Yerba Mate can improve cardiovascular health by reducing blood lipid concentrations and blood pressure, particularly in hypercholesterolemic subjects (Sarriá et al., 2020). This has led to the development of yerba mate products specifically targeted at cardiovascular health. Additionally, the antioxidant activity of yerba mate has been a focal point, with research indicating that Yerba Mate extracts can modulate antioxidant markers in the plasma and brains of rats, suggesting potential neuroprotective benefits (Vargas et al., 2021). These findings support the creation of yerba mate products aimed at promoting overall health and well-being.

7.3 Marketing and consumer trends

Marketing and consumer trends in the Yerba Mate industry have evolved to emphasize its health benefits and cultural significance. The rich content of polyphenols and methylxanthines in Yerba Mate, which contribute to its high antioxidant capacity, has been a key selling point (Mateos et al., 2018). Moreover, the cultural significance of Yerba Mate in South America, where it is traditionally consumed as chimarrão or tereré, has been leveraged in marketing strategies to appeal to consumers seeking authentic and traditional beverages (Silva et al., 2019). The increasing global popularity of Yerba Mate has also led to the introduction of various product formats, such as ready-to-drink beverages and Yerba Mate-infused snacks, catering to the growing demand for convenient and health-oriented products.

8 Future Research Directions

8.1 Emerging areas of research in Yerba Mate

The study of Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) has revealed numerous health benefits and a rich phytochemical profile, yet several emerging areas warrant further exploration. One promising area is the detailed investigation of the bioavailability and metabolism of Yerba Mate's bioactive compounds in humans. While studies have shown significant antioxidant activity and health benefits in animal models (Vargas et al., 2021), human studies are needed to confirm these effects and understand the underlying mechanisms.

Another emerging area is the exploration of Yerba Mate's potential in neuroprotection and cognitive enhancement. Preliminary studies have indicated that Yerba Mate extracts can modulate antioxidant markers in the brain (Vargas et al., 2021), suggesting potential benefits for neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, the role of Yerba Mate in modulating gut microbiota and its implications for overall health is an exciting frontier. The interaction between Yerba Mate's polyphenols and the gut microbiome could reveal new pathways for its health benefits (Mateos et al., 2018).

8.2 Challenges and opportunities in Yerba Mate research

One of the primary challenges in Yerba Mate research is the variability in the phytochemical composition due to different growing conditions, harvest seasons, and processing methods. Studies have shown significant differences in nutrient levels and antioxidant properties depending on the harvest season and geographic origin (Bastos et al., 2018; Rząsa-Duran et al., 2022). Standardizing these variables is crucial for consistent research outcomes and for developing reliable health recommendations. Another challenge is the potential contamination with heavy metals and mycotoxins. Research has highlighted the presence of elements like cadmium and lead in Yerba Mate, sometimes exceeding acceptable limits (Motta et al., 2020; Ulbrich et al., 2021). Addressing these contamination issues through improved agricultural practices and processing methods is essential to ensure the safety of Yerba Mate products.

Despite these challenges, there are significant opportunities in the field. The development of advanced extraction techniques, such as supercritical CO₂ extraction, allows for the selective extraction of bioactive compounds, enhancing the potential for creating specialized nutraceutical products (Hegel et al., 2021). Additionally, the integration of traditional knowledge with modern scientific research can provide a holistic understanding of Yerba Mate's benefits and promote its cultural significance (Pinto et al., 2021).

8.3 Integrating traditional knowledge with modern science

Yerba Mate has a long history of traditional use in South America, where it is consumed daily in various forms such as chimarrão and tereré (Pinto et al., 2021). Integrating this traditional knowledge with modern scientific research can provide a comprehensive understanding of its health benefits and cultural significance. Traditional practices can offer insights into optimal preparation methods that maximize the bioavailability of beneficial compounds. Moreover, collaboration with indigenous communities can lead to the discovery of new uses and preparation methods that have not yet been explored scientifically. This integration can also promote the sustainable cultivation and harvesting of Yerba Mate, preserving both the environment and the cultural heritage associated with this plant.

While there are challenges in standardizing Yerba Mate research and ensuring product safety, the opportunities for advancing our understanding of its health benefits and integrating traditional knowledge are vast. Future research should focus on these emerging areas to fully realize the potential of Yerba Mate as a functional food and nutraceutical.

9 Concluding Remarks

Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) is a plant native to South America, widely consumed for its health benefits and cultural significance. The phytochemical composition of Yerba Mate includes a variety of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and methylxanthines, which contribute to its high antioxidant activity. Studies have shown that Yerba Mate infusions can partially meet daily nutritional requirements for elements like magnesium, zinc, copper, iron, and manganese. Additionally, the antioxidant potential of Yerba Mate remains high even in its waste products, suggesting opportunities for sustainable resource utilization. The chemical composition and nutrient levels of Yerba Mate can vary depending on the harvest season and geographic origin, with Brazilian samples often showing the highest antioxidant activity.

To ensure the sustainable development of the Yerba Mate industry, several recommendations are crucial. Promoting sustainable agricultural practices, such as using Yerba Mate waste as a source of high-value antioxidant compounds, can reduce environmental impact and create additional income sources. Standardizing quality and safety within the industry can ensure product consistency. Providing financial and technical assistance to small-scale farmers can help them adopt sustainable practices and improve their livelihoods. Additionally, investing in research to explore new health benefits, improve processing techniques, and develop innovative products that meet consumer demand is essential. Enhancing consumer awareness of Yerba Mate's health benefits and cultural significance through targeted marketing and educational campaigns can also boost its market appeal.

Research in health policy and cultural preservation is also of significant importance. Policymakers should consider incorporating Yerba Mate into dietary guidelines, emphasizing its health benefits while addressing potential risks associated with high-temperature consumption. Funding for research on the health impacts of Yerba Mate should be prioritized. Efforts to support and promote the cultural heritage of Yerba Mate, including the preservation of traditional practices and recognition of indigenous communities' contributions, are essential. Cultural exchange programs and collaborations with local artisans can help maintain the cultural identity associated with Yerba Mate. As Yerba Mate's popularity continues to grow globally, ensuring the fair distribution of its cultural and economic benefits is crucial, promoting fair trade and sustainable practices in international markets.

In summary, Yerba Mate is a valuable plant offering numerous benefits. Through comprehensive research and the sustainable development of the Yerba Mate industry, guided by ethical and environmental principles, its global influence can be enhanced while preserving its rich cultural heritage.

Acknowledgments

Author thanks the two anonymous reviewers for their feedback on the manuscript of this study. 

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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