1 Introduction

Grapevine is an important fruit crop worldwide, and berry composition directly influences the market value of table grapes and the quality of wine (Zhu et al., 2022; Kaya et al., 2024a). In grape cultivation, nutrient management is closely related not only to yield but also to vegetative growth and berry composition, thereby affecting the gap between actual and potential productivity (James et al., 2023). Soil chemical properties and vineyard management practices also influence the balance between vegetative and reproductive growth, which is essential for maintaining stable long-term production (Cataldo et al., 2021). Therefore, sustainable nutrient management has become a key strategy for simultaneously maintaining grape yield, fruit quality, ecosystem functions, and stress resilience (Cataldo et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2022).

Long-term dependence on chemical fertilizers has also caused considerable agronomic and environmental problems. Excessive or imbalanced application of mineral fertilizers can alter vine vigor and fruit composition while reducing soil biological functions and the activities of enzymes involved in nutrient cycling (James et al., 2023; Visconti et al., 2024). Continuous application of inorganic fertilizers alone may also lead to declines in soil organic matter, soil acidification, nutrient imbalance, salinization, and environmental pollution (Bhatt et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2024). In vineyards, inappropriate management can similarly result in soil compaction, erosion, and biodiversity loss, ultimately reducing grape yield and quality (Cataldo et al., 2021; Kaya et al., 2025). Prolonged fertilization may also reshape soil microbial communities and reduce the abundance of beneficial microorganisms positively associated with grape productivity (Li et al., 2024; Visconti et al., 2024). Therefore, improving nutrient-use efficiency is more important than simply increasing fertilizer inputs.

Organic fertilization provides an alternative approach to improving the vineyard soil environment. Organic fertilizers can supply nutrients while increasing soil organic matter, improving soil structure, porosity, water-holding capacity, and nutrient-buffering capacity, and enhancing microbial abundance and soil enzyme activity (James et al., 2023; Visconti et al., 2024; Wu et al., 2024). Hazarika et al. (2024) established 14 combined treatments involving organic fertilizers and microbial inoculants. Among them, the treatment consisting of pig manure + Azospirillum + PSB + KSB + Trichoderma + CPP + BD500 + BD501 resulted in the highest levels of soil organic carbon, total carbon, total N, available N/P/K, Mn, Zn, and CEC, together with the greatest populations of bacteria and actinomycetes and the highest concentrations of Mn, Zn, and chlorophyll in grape leaves. Mairata et al. (2024) further reported that organic mulches can improve nutrient-poor semiarid soils and enhance stress tolerance. However, the effects of organic amendments vary according to the type of organic material, initial soil fertility, grape cultivar, and environmental conditions. Kokkonen et al. (2025) found that some organic treatments had only limited effects on leaf nutrient concentrations, yield, and grape juice composition, while certain treatments even reduced yield, indicating that organic fertilization practices need to be optimized according to specific vineyard conditions.

This study investigates the effects of organic fertilization on vineyard soil health, nutrient uptake, and fruit quality, with particular emphasis on the responses of the integrated “soil–grapevine–fruit” continuum. Changes in soil organic matter, nutrient availability, physical properties, biological activity, and microbial functions will be evaluated, and their potential contributions to improved nutrient uptake efficiency, yield components, and fruit quality traits, including sugar content, acidity, phenolic compounds, and other biochemical characteristics, will be further examined. This study is expected to provide a scientific basis for reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers and achieving high-yield, high-quality, and sustainable grape production.

2 Types and Characteristics of Organic Fertilizers Used in Grapevines

2.1 Animal- and plant-derived organic fertilizers

Animal- and plant-derived fertilizers in vineyards commonly include manure-based inputs and composted crop residues. Vineyard studies have tested farmyard manure, pig manure, sheep manure, composted steer manure, and mixtures of pruning residues or straw with farm manure, showing that these materials can improve soil properties and, in many cases, vine performance (Wilson et al., 2021; Hazarika et al., 2024). Plant-derived and winery-derived materials are also increasingly important, especially pruning waste, legume cover crop residues, grape pomace compost, and grape pomace vermicompost, because they recycle vineyard by-products into nutrient sources and organic matter inputs (Kokkonen et al., 2025).

These materials differ markedly in nutrient composition and decomposition characteristics. For example, Kokkonen et al. (2025) reported substantial differences in the dry-basis concentrations of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) between compost and vermicompost derived from grape pomace, with grape pomace compost containing higher nutrient concentrations than grape pomace vermicompost. More broadly, compost nutrient composition, organic carbon content, and biological activity vary with feedstock origin and processing, so materials with similar sources can still produce different nutrient release patterns and vine responses (Mitropoulou et al., 2025). Organic amendments usually decompose more slowly than mineral fertilizers, providing nutrients over a longer part of the growing season, but this gradual release can delay vine uptake in the first years after application (Lucchetta et al., 2023).

2.2 Bio-organic fertilizers and microbial amendments

Bio-organic fertilizers combine organic nutrient sources with living microbial inoculants. In grapevine systems, these inoculants include Azospirillum, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, potash-solubilizing bacteria, Trichoderma harzianum, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and fungal consortia added to composts or other carriers (Hazarika et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2024). Their function extends beyond direct nutrient supply because beneficial microbes can increase nutrient availability, modulate phytohormones, improve root development, and suppress pathogenic organisms (Kumar et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2024).

Studies on grapevines have shown that microbial enrichment can promote nutrient mineralization and enhance soil biological fertility. Hazarika et al. (2024) reported that the combined application of organic amendments, biofertilizers, and biodynamic preparations increased soil total and available nutrient contents, cation exchange capacity, and bacterial abundance, while also improving the micronutrient status of grapevine leaves. Bio-organic fertilizers containing Bacillus or Trichoderma increased soil organic matter, available N, P, and K, enhanced catalase, urease, sucrase, and nitrate reductase activities, and improved seedling shoot and root growth (Liu et al., 2024). Likewise, compost inoculated with fungal consortia enhanced soil enzyme activity, while long-term compost use promoted microbial biomass, phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria, and enzymes involved in nutrient turnover (Lucchetta et al., 2023; Lucchetta et al., 2025). However, microbial amendments are not always sufficient as stand-alone replacements for mineral fertilization, especially where soil organic matter is low and nitrogen supply is limiting (Lisek and Popińska, 2025).

2.3 Factors determining organic fertilizer efficiency

A central factor determining the efficiency of organic fertilizers is the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, because it strongly regulates whether nitrogen is mineralized and released to the vine or temporarily immobilized by microorganisms. Organic amendments with a C/N ratio below 30 generally release mineral N, whereas higher ratios tend to favor immobilization and reduce immediate N availability (Baldi et al., 2022). Shen et al. (2024), in a meta-analysis of agricultural residues, further demonstrated that an initial carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N) of approximately 25-30 is generally more favorable for improving compost maturity and nutrient accumulation, whereas a C/N ratio of 30-35 often prolongs the composting period. This issue is especially relevant for winery wastes, since their lignin, cellulose, and polyphenol contents can slow decomposition unless the composting process is properly balanced and matured (Mitropoulou et al., 2025).

Efficiency also depends on application rate, maturity of the amendment, and environmental conditions in the soil. In degraded vineyard soils, compost applied at 22.4-33.6 t/ha increased soil N, C, pH, exchangeable K and Ca, available P, and petiole N, P, and K, while improving pruning weight, berry weight, and later vine yield without altering juice soluble solids or acidity (Wilson et al., 2021). Deep or repeated compost application also increased organic carbon, humification, microbial biomass, and shoot growth, and organic fertilization in semiarid vineyards enhanced aggregate stability, microbial activity, and long-term C and N protection in soil (Burg et al., 2023; Fracetto et al., 2025).

Responses vary with cultivar, soil type, rainfall, and prior fertility status, and excessive or overly rapid N mineralization can stimulate vegetative growth while reducing yield or berry quality (Kokkonen et al., 2025). Organic fertilizer efficiency in vineyards emerges from the interactions among fertilizer characteristics, application management, soil properties, grape cultivar, environmental conditions, and vineyard management practices, which collectively regulate responses across the soil-grapevine-fruit continuum (Figure 1). Accordingly, an effective organic fertilization strategy should not be defined by amendment type alone, but should instead match amendment composition, maturity, application rate, and microbial activity with vine nutrient demand and site-specific soil conditions.

3 Effects of Organic Fertilization on Vineyard Soil Health

3.1 Improvement of soil physical properties

Organic fertilization can consistently improve soil aggregation, porosity, and bulk density in vineyards. In a 10-year experiment conducted in a semiarid Mediterranean vineyard, the application of pruning residues combined with sheep manure or the use of a legume cover crop increased the proportion of stable soil aggregates compared with inorganic fertilization (García‐Orenes et al., 2016). In a three-year greenhouse grapevine experiment, Wu et al. (2024) reported that organic fertilizers reduced soil bulk density and increased porosity, whereas the chemical fertilization control showed the lowest soil porosity.

These improvements in soil structure are closely associated with organic matter inputs. Reviews of viticulture have shown that organic fertilization can improve soil structure and increase soil organic matter (SOM) content, while compost derived from winery wastes has also been shown to enhance physical properties such as soil water-holding capacity and aeration (Cataldo et al., 2021). In semiarid ecosystems, organic management promoted carbon and nitrogen retention within deeper soil macroaggregates and strengthened long-term soil structural integrity, indicating that these structural benefits are not restricted to the surface soil layer (Fracetto et al., 2025). Studies of orchard soils have shown similar trends: organic fertilization reduced soil bulk density, increased porosity and saturated hydraulic conductivity, and increased the proportion of macroaggregates, thereby creating a healthier soil environment for root growth (Su et al., 2026).

3.2 Regulation of soil chemical fertility

A key chemical effect of organic fertilization in vineyards is the accumulation of soil organic matter and carbon pools. In a terraced Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard, three consecutive years of compost application increased soil organic matter (SOM) content. In Mediterranean and tropical vineyards, organic fertilization also increased total organic carbon and labile carbon and improved the balance between humic and fulvic acid fractions, thereby enhancing soil carbon stability (García‐Orenes et al., 2016; Lucchetta et al., 2023; Fracetto et al., 2024). Broader agronomic studies have likewise shown that increases in SOM provide an important foundation for subsequent improvements in soil fertility, aggregate structure, and nutrient-buffering capacity (Xing et al., 2025).

Organic fertilization generally increases nutrient availability, particularly the supply of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), although nutrient release is usually slower than that from mineral fertilizers. In vineyards, compost- and manure-based treatments can increase soil total N, available P, and water-soluble carbohydrates and, in some systems, also increase available N and K. In a disturbed hillslope vineyard, Lucchetta et al. (2023) found that compost improved mineral nutrient availability, but a significant increase in leaf N content became evident only after three consecutive years of application. This was associated with the relatively slow decomposition of organic matter and the initial microbial immobilization of newly mineralized N. Such slow-release characteristics can prolong nutrient supply and improve nutrient retention, although short-term responses may be limited and can vary among grape cultivars.

Organic fertilization generally has positive effects on soil pH, cation exchange capacity, and nutrient retention, although responses are not entirely consistent across studies. In a degraded vineyard, compost application increased soil pH and the concentrations of exchangeable K, Ca, Mn, and available P, while reducing P fixation (Wilson et al., 2021). In a grapevine study, Wu et al. (2024) showed that organic fertilizer buffered changes in soil pH and reduced soil alkalinity compared with chemical fertilizer. Broader soil-health studies further indicate that organic inputs can buffer soil acidification and enhance nutrient retention by increasing cation exchange capacity (CEC) and soil surface reactivity (Xing et al., 2025). Porous materials such as zeolite can further reduce nutrient leaching losses in vineyard soils (Doni et al., 2021).

3.3 Effects on soil biological activity

Organic fertilization increases microbial biomass and reshapes microbial community structure in vineyard soils. After a decade of organic management, vineyard soils had higher microbial biomass and altered microbial composition relative to inorganic fertilization, including increased fungal and Gram-positive bacterial abundance (García‐Orenes et al., 2016). In disturbed hillslope vineyards, compost increased microbial growth from the second year onward and shifted communities toward copiotrophic and phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria while reducing pathogenic fungal strains (Lucchetta et al., 2023).

Organic fertilization also enhances enzyme activities involved in nutrient cycling. Vineyard experiments documented higher dehydrogenase, protease, urease, β-glucosidase, and phosphomonoesterase activity under organic systems than under inorganic fertilization (García‐Orenes et al., 2016). Compost-treated vineyards showed stronger enzyme activity, especially for enzymes involved in the phosphorus cycle, and fungal-inoculated pruning-waste compost further increased soil enzyme activity (Lucchetta et al., 2023; Lucchetta et al., 2025). Additional grape studies found increases in catalase, dehydrogenase, urease, phosphatase, and other enzyme activities after organic fertilizer application (Tangolar et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2024). Broader long-term fertilization evidence suggests that organic inputs favor a more diverse and stable microbial community and slower, more regulated nutrient transformations than chemical fertilization alone.

4 Effects of Organic Fertilization on Nutrient Uptake in Grapevines

4.1 Regulation of macronutrient uptake

Organic fertilization often increases nitrogen availability and uptake, but the response depends strongly on amendment type and the balance between organic and mineral N sources. Bio-organic fertilizer increased soil available N and improved seedling growth in grapevine, while sewage sludge compost increased nitrate availability and vine N status, and integrated N management with 60%-80% mineral N plus 20%-40% organic and biofertilizer improved growth, yield, and berry quality better than mineral N alone (Muhammed et al., 2023). Organic amendments can also increase leaf P content and soil available P, as shown for grape pomace compost and vermicompost, poultry manure-based fertilization, and combined organic-biofertilizer treatments (Kokkonen et al., 2025). However, vineyard evidence is mixed because compost or vermicompost did not always increase leaf N, and long-term field studies in low-organic-matter soils found that organic fertilizers and AMF were not sufficient substitutes for mineral N supply.

Potassium uptake also responds positively to many organic fertilization programs, but the effect is shaped by initial soil fertility and by interactions with other nutrients. Municipal organic waste compost increased vine K status in Sangiovese, commercial organic fertilizers raised soil total and available K in greenhouse grapes, and grape pomace compost provided higher K input than pomace vermicompost on a dry-matter basis (Baldi et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2024). More generally, Hu et al. (2023) found that K supply can also stimulate P uptake and redistribute nutrients among grapevine organs, with root K status and soil available K closely associated with scion K accumulation. Seasonal nutrient-partitioning studies show that K demand peaks after bloom and during berry development, and that nutrient distribution differs among organs and production systems, so the effect of organic K sources depends on synchronization with these periods of high uptake (Chen et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2026).

4.2 Effects on secondary and micronutrient nutrition

Organic fertilization can modify calcium and magnesium uptake, but the direction and magnitude of change are less consistent than for N, P, and K. Organic nutrition significantly affected leaf Mg in high-altitude grapevines and generally enhanced mineral composition, while long-term field data showed that some biofertilizer treatments increased soil Mg and pH, and liming improved leaf Ca status in one cultivar (Lisek and Popińska, 2025). In ‘Syrah’, goat manure increased must Mg in one season but reduced must Ca in others, indicating that secondary nutrient responses can vary by year and tissue evaluated (da Silva et al., 2024). More broadly, organic additions are reported to supply Ca and Mg, lower pH through organic acid release, and improve root-system performance, which can favor secondary nutrient acquisition under some soil conditions (Hasan et al., 2023).

Micronutrient availability often improves under organic fertilization, especially when organic amendments are combined with beneficial microorganisms. In grapevine, integrated organic amendments with Azospirillum, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, potash-solubilizing bacteria, and Trichoderma produced the highest leaf Mn and Zn concentrations and increased soil Mn and Zn availability (Hazarika et al., 2024). Poultry manure with organic foliar fertilization significantly affected Fe, Cu, and other micronutrients in leaves, and organic nutrition generally enhanced leaf mineral content under high-altitude conditions (Tutuş and Sensoy, 2024). A three-year field study in ‘Royal’ grapes also showed treatment-related variation in Fe, Zn, B, Ca, and Mg accumulation, with some organic fertilizer–tillage combinations producing higher mineral contents, although these interactions were strongly year-dependent (Kaya et al., 2025). Seasonal uptake studies further show that boron uptake peaks during flowering, while Fe and Zn can accumulate to unusually high concentrations in specific organs or stages, reinforcing that micronutrient management under organic fertilization should be timed to developmental demand (Chen et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2026).

4.3 Root and rhizosphere mechanisms of nutrient acquisition

Organic fertilization influences nutrient acquisition partly by improving root growth, architecture, and activity. In grapevine seedlings, bio-organic fertilizers promoted root expansion, increased root activity, and up-regulated genes related to cell wall loosening and auxin signaling, consistent with stronger root growth and earlier attainment of transplantable shoot size (Liu et al., 2024). Broader rhizosphere evidence indicates that root traits such as lateral root density, root hair abundance, fine-root development, and exudation capacity are central to nutrient uptake because they enlarge the absorbing surface and help recruit beneficial microorganisms (Araujo et al., 2025). Organic inputs can support these processes by improving root-zone conditions and encouraging root-hair formation and root surface area expansion (Hasan et al., 2023).

Rhizosphere microorganisms are a second major mechanism through which organic fertilization enhances nutrient mobilization. Bio-organic fertilizer increased bacterial diversity and the abundance of symbiotic N-fixing Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria in grapevine rhizosphere soil, while combined organic amendments and biofertilizers increased bacterial and Actinomycete abundance in vineyards (Liu et al., 2024). Mechanistically, PGPR and related rhizosphere microbes convert plant-unavailable N, P, and Zn into available forms, produce phytohormones and siderophores, and enhance nutrient solubilization and nitrogen fixation through root-microbial crosstalk (Feng et al., 2026). Organic phosphorus mobilization is also regulated by interactions among amendment chemistry, root traits, and microbiome functions such as proton release, organic acid exudation, and phosphatase activity.

Improved nutrient uptake under organic fertilization is mediated by both direct changes in root architecture and indirect regulation through the rhizosphere microbiome (Figure 2). These two pathways interact to increase the effective nutrient-absorbing surface and convert poorly available soil nutrients into forms more readily accessible to grapevine roots.

5 Effects of Organic Fertilization on Grapevine Growth and Yield Formation

5.1 Effects on vegetative growth

When nutrient release is synchronized with grapevine demand, organic fertilization generally promotes shoot growth, leaf area expansion, and canopy development. Chen et al. (2023) found that, in drip-irrigated seedless white grapes, combined organic and inorganic fertilization increased new shoot length by 3.16%-11.88% and leaf midrib length by 7.35%-15.15% compared with inorganic fertilization alone. In Flame Seedless grapes, partial replacement of mineral nitrogen with compost, biofertilizer, or humic acid increased leaf area, pruning wood weight, and total chlorophyll content (Abd EL-Rahman et al., 2021). Similar improvements were also observed over three consecutive growing seasons when mineral nitrogen was partially replaced with organic and biological nitrogen sources (Alsalhy et al., 2021). Compared with the 100% mineral nitrogen treatment, Red Roomy grapevines under partial substitution treatments developed longer shoots, more leaves, and larger leaf areas. Bio-organic fertilizers also promoted grapevine seedling growth, allowing seedlings to reach the target shoot size 1-4 weeks earlier (Liu et al., 2024; El-Salhy et al., 2025). In a terraced Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard, compost application promoted vegetative growth relative to chemical fertilization, while in semiarid tropical vineyards, organic fertilization improved soil conditions and increased crop yield under adverse environmental conditions (Lucchetta et al., 2023; Fracetto et al., 2024).

Improvements in vegetative growth are usually accompanied by enhanced leaf nutrient status and photosynthetic performance. Under arid conditions, combined organic and inorganic fertilization significantly increased transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, and net photosynthetic rate in grapevines (Chen et al., 2023). Partial replacement of synthetic nitrogen with organic nitrogen improved seedling photosynthetic performance and root growth, with intermediate substitution rates producing the greatest enhancement in photosynthesis, whereas excessively high substitution rates could exert inhibitory effects (Han et al., 2025). Piva et al. (2020) reported that organic and biodynamic management also increased leaf photosynthetic activity, Rubisco efficiency, PSII quantum yield, SPAD index, and shoot growth in young BRS Carmem grapevines during at least one growing season. However, these beneficial effects have certain limitations. In a Riesling vineyard trial, organic and biodynamic management reduced lateral leaf area, leaf area index (LAI) during ripening, pruning weight, and some physiological performance indicators compared with integrated management, although canopy size remained within an acceptable range for maintaining normal assimilation capacity (Döring et al., 2015).

5.2 Effects on reproductive development

Organic fertilization affects reproductive development mainly by altering vine nutritional balance before and after bloom. Evidence from Riesling indicates that reduced physiological performance after full bloom under organic and biodynamic management can limit berry size determination and reduce cluster weight when water competition from cover crops is not controlled (Döring et al., 2015). By contrast, integrated organic-mineral programs in warmer regions generally hastened maturation and improved fruiting, suggesting that better nutrient balance and canopy function support flowering, fruit set, and early berry growth (Alsalhy et al., 2021; El-Salhy et al., 2025). Organic substitution with reduced N plus organic fertilizer also improved photosynthetic efficiency and N utilization in Shine Muscat, factors closely associated with reproductive performance (Huang et al., 2026). Seasonal uptake studies further indicate that flowering is a critical period for N and B demand, while berry bulking is a key phase for P, Ca, and Mg acquisition, so the reproductive benefit of organic fertilization depends on whether nutrient mineralization matches these stages (Saleh et al., 2026).

Effects on cluster development and berry size are better documented and generally positive under well-balanced organic fertilization. In Flame Seedless, all combined fertilization treatments increased yield and improved cluster and berry traits relative to mineral fertilization alone. In Red Roomy, combined fertilization increased cluster and berry characteristics, and the triple-form treatment increased berry number by 21.49% and yield by 12.09% while also improving berry sugars and anthocyanin (El-Salhy et al., 2025). In a two-year Shine Muscat field study, vertical berry diameter and single-berry weight had significant positive effects on total yield, indicating that organic fertilizer substitution enhanced production partly by improving berry morphology (Huang et al., 2026). Short-term biostimulant evidence points in the same direction, with amino acid treatments increasing cluster length, cluster width, cluster weight, berry number per cluster, 100-berry volume, and yield per vine, although those results reflect one-season responses rather than accumulated soil effects (Saleh et al., 2026).

5.3 Effects on yield and production stability

Yield per vine and cluster productivity usually improve under moderate organic substitution or combined fertilization. In arid drip-irrigated vineyards, combined organic-inorganic fertilization increased yield by 6.68%-19.12%, with the 50:50 organic-to-inorganic ratio recommended under 720 mm irrigation (Chen et al., 2023). In Shine Muscat, reducing N by 20%-30% and adding organic fertilizer increased yield by 18.2% and 96.0% under the 0.8N + OF treatment across two seasons and delivered the highest economic return (Huang et al., 2026). Wu et al. (2024) found that two commercial organic fertilizers increased yield by 19.04% and 16.26%, whereas sheep manure and fermented corn stalk residue decreased yield, showing that material quality strongly affects productivity. Medium-term Mediterranean field data showed similar yields under organic and inorganic fertilization after 10 years, while compost in a restored hillslope vineyard produced a trend toward higher first-year yield with improved vegetative performance and nutrient uptake (García‐Orenes et al., 2016; Lucchetta et al., 2023).

Long-term yield stability under organic nutrient management appears achievable, but it depends on balanced formulations and local conditions rather than on organic inputs alone. Reviews of tropical and sustainable viticulture converge that nutrient-specific, integrated fertilization is the most reliable route to sustaining productivity and grape quality over time (Cataldo et al., 2021; James et al., 2023). Multi-year and long-term studies show that organic fertilization can stabilize soil carbon, microbial biomass, and nutrient cycling, which supports durable production capacity (Fracetto et al., 2024). However, field comparisons in Riesling found lower growth and yield under organic and biodynamic systems than under integrated management, and subtropical trials with grape pomace compost or vermicompost found negligible benefits in Chardonnay and reduced yield in Isabella (Döring et al., 2015; Kokkonen et al., 2025).

6 Effects of Organic Fertilization on Grape Fruit Quality

6.1 Regulation of sugar and organic acid accumulation

Organic fertilization often increases soluble solids and soluble sugars when nutrient supply is balanced rather than excessive. In Isabel Precoce grapes, organic fertilization with up to 90 kg/ha N increased soluble solids to about 17 °Brix, total soluble sugars, reducing sugars, and the soluble solids-to-acidity ratio (De Lima et al., 2021). In Superior grapevines, replacing part of mineral N with chicken manure and biofertilizer increased total soluble solids, reducing sugars, and berry quality progressively as mineral N was reduced from 100% to 40% (Muhammed et al., 2023). In Shine Muscat, reducing N by 20%-30% while adding organic fertilizer consistently increased total sugar and the sugar–acid ratio, and potassium availability emerged as the key factor regulating sugar accumulation and flavor coordination (Huang et al., 2026). Multi-year Royal grape studies likewise showed that tillage plus organic amendments significantly altered berry sugar composition, with treatment-dependent increases in sucrose, glucose, and fructose and the highest rhamnose, galactose, and xylose under broccoli fertilizer in some combinations (Kaya et al., 2024b).

Effects on titratable acidity and sugar–acid balance are generally favorable but less uniform than effects on sugar accumulation. Partial replacement of mineral N with organic and biofertilizers decreased total acidity in Superior berries while increasing the TSS/acid ratio (Muhammed et al., 2023). In Shine Muscat, Huang et al. (2026) found that the 0.8N + organic fertilizer treatment increased the sugar–acid ratio together with total sugar and vitamin C. Increased organic fertilization with reduced chemical fertilizer also lowered grape juice pH in arid vineyards, consistent with improved flavor balance (Wu et al., 2021). However, acidity responses are not consistent across cultivars: pH and titratable acidity were unaffected in white seedless grapes under organic, conventional, and integrated fertilization, and organic fertilization did not affect most quality traits of ‘Syrah’ must (Koureh et al., 2019; da Silva et al., 2024). This variability is biologically plausible because sugar and acid profiles are strongly stage-dependent, with sugars rising and organic acids shifting markedly from veraison to ripening (Yılmaz et al., 2024).

6.2 Effects on phenolic and aroma-related compounds

Organic fertilization often enhances anthocyanins, flavonoids, and total phenolics, especially when nutrient supply promotes moderate stress and balanced ripening. In white seedless grape, organic fertilization produced the highest total phenolics, catechin, and quercetin-3-galactoside, while antioxidant activity and total flavonoids were highest under organic or integrated systems (Koureh et al., 2019). In Royal grapes, three-year studies showed significant treatment effects on phenolics and anthocyanins, with broccoli-based fertilization generally producing the strongest increases and specific tillage-fertilizer combinations enhancing compounds such as resveratrol, pterostilbene, vanillic acid, and trans-caffeic acid (Kaya et al., 2024b). Organic and combined fertilization schedules in Cabernet Sauvignon also increased berry quality through higher total phenols or tannins and linked these changes to shifts in soil bacterial communities associated with anthocyanin and tannin accumulation (Wang et al., 2021). Soil-conditioner work supports the same direction, showing higher anthocyanins, tannins, and total phenols than standard NPK or organic fertilizer alone (Jiang et al., 2024). Phenolic responses are not universally positive: in Isabel Precoce, the highest polyphenol and anthocyanin contents occurred with mineral N up to 60 kg/ ha without organic fertilization (De Lima et al., 2021).

Evidence on volatile compounds and aroma characteristics is more limited, but fertilizer regime clearly affects berry aroma composition. General berry-development studies by Yılmaz et al. (2024) show that aroma synthesis becomes prominent during ripening, after sugar accumulation and pigmentation intensify. In Hanxiangmi table grape, nutrient-related K treatments increased volatile free aroma compounds, especially terpenes such as linalool, nerol, and citronellol, alongside higher TSS and lower acidity under the combined treatment (Chen et al., 2022). More broadly, vineyard management studies conclude that fertilization can substantially alter sugar content, polyphenolic profiles, and therefore sensory attributes of grapes and wines (Jiang et al., 2024).

6.3 Effects on external and nutritional quality

Organic fertilization can improve berry size, firmness, color, and overall appearance, but these traits respond strongly to fertilizer formulation. In Shine Muscat, organic fertilizer substitution improved berry morphology, and path analysis identified vertical diameter and single-berry weight as major contributors to yield gains (Huang et al., 2026). In greenhouse grapes, commercial organic fertilizers increased early yield, whereas sheep manure and corn-stover treatments reduced it, implying that amendment maturity and nutrient balance affect berry development and marketable appearance (Wu et al., 2024). Increased organic fertilizer with reduced chemical fertilizer also improved flesh firmness in arid-area grapes (Wu et al., 2021). Evidence from related preharvest organic stimulants is consistent with these traits being nutritionally sensitive: molasses-based treatments improved berry coloration, firmness, and TSS while lowering acidity in Crimson Seedless (Samaan et al., 2026). Berry color is especially important in red cultivars because it directly affects consumer appeal and price, and improvements in anthocyanin accumulation generally translate into better external appearance (Salama et al., 2023).

The strongest consensus concerns nutritional quality and antioxidant capacity. Koureh et al. (2019) reported that organic fertilization produced the highest antioxidant activity, total phenolics, and valuable flavonoids in white seedless grapes. In Shine Muscat, organic substitution increased vitamin C content (Huang et al., 2026). Royal grape studies of Kaya et al. (2025) further showed that organic fertilization altered berry mineral composition, hormone levels, and antioxidant enzyme activities, indicating that nutritional improvement extends beyond sugars and phenolics alone.

7 Integrated Organic Nutrient Management in Vineyard Production

7.1 Combined use of organic and mineral fertilizers

Partial substitution of chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers is the most consistently supported strategy. In Shine Muscat, reducing N by 20%-30% and adding organic fertilizer increased yield, improved sugar–acid balance, and produced the highest economic return, whereas substitution above 40% reduced economic benefit (Huang et al., 2026). In Superior grapevines, mineral N at 60% with 20% organic and 20% biofertilizer improved growth, yield, and berry quality, and replacing 40% of mineral fertilizer was recommended as a practical reduction target (Muhammed et al., 2023). Similar results were reported by Alsalhy et al. (2021) in Flame Seedless, where using 25%-50% of N requirement as mineral fertilizer plus organic and biofertilizer improved vine nutrient status, yield, fruit quality, and packable yield while lowering production costs and pollution risk. Humic- and fulvic-acid substitution also fit this pattern, with 75% of N requirement plus humic or fulvic acid improving vine nutrient status, yield, fruit quality, and some soil properties while reducing environmental costs from excess mineral N (El-Salhy et al., 2023).

The agronomic rationale is that mineral fertilizers provide immediate nutrient availability, whereas organic fertilizers strengthen long-term soil fertility. Combined organic–inorganic fertilization increased soil available N, P, and K, shoot growth, photosynthesis, yield, and fruit quality under drip irrigation in an arid vineyard, with 50% organic plus 50% inorganic fertilizer recommended at 720 mm irrigation (Chen et al., 2023). Commercial organic fertilizers combined with inorganic basal fertilization also improved early Shine Muscat yield and provided more comprehensive nutrient supply than chemical fertilizer alone (Wu et al., 2024). More generally, Luo et al. (2024) reported that joint organic–mineral fertilization improves soil P activation better than mineral fertilizer alone, which helps explain its value in low-fertility soils. However, balance is essential: sewage-sludge compost increased N availability and vegetative growth in Sangiovese, but excessive mineralization reduced yield and berry quality, while overuse of compost plus mineral fertilizer raised exchangeable nutrients without improving vine response in subtropical vineyards (Baldi et al., 2022; Kokkonen et al., 2025).

7.2 Coordination of organic fertilization with vineyard management

Organic fertilization is more effective when coordinated with irrigation and soil-moisture management. In extremely arid vineyards, imbalanced water–fertilizer systems limited yield and quality, whereas combined organic–inorganic fertilization under optimized drip irrigation improved soil nutrients, vine growth, yield, and berry quality (Chen et al., 2023). In semi-arid nutrient-poor vineyards, spent mushroom compost mulch increased soil water content, leaf N, vegetative growth, and yield, while straw mulch improved soil water content, reduced soil temperature, and improved plant water status and gas exchange (Mairata et al., 2024). Broader dryland evidence supports this mechanism: organic mulching reduces evaporation, conserves water in the root zone, limits erosion, and increases soil organic matter and water-holding capacity (Demo and Bogale, 2024).

Integration with cover cropping, mulching, and soil conservation is also central to vineyard nutrient management. Cover crops can increase organic matter, reduce erosion, improve biodiversity, and supply nutrients, but permanent cover crops can also compete with vines for water and nutrients. Mairata et al. (2024) pointed out that organic mulches provide a useful alternative because they control weeds and erosion while reducing compaction and increasing porosity, aggregate stability, and nutritional content in the shallow soil layer. Conservation tillage and plant-waste incorporation are likewise associated with better long-term soil health and yield resilience, whereas continuous cultivation can reduce organic matter and soil permeability over time (Kaya et al., 2024a). These combined practices align with broader soil-conservation principles in sustainable agriculture, where cover cropping, conservation tillage, and organic amendments preserve fertility, water, and biodiversity (Hasan et al., 2023).

7.3 Optimization of organic fertilization strategies

Optimization depends first on matching fertilizer type and application rate to vineyard requirements. The chemical composition, maturity, and mineralization rate of organic materials determine whether they support balanced vegetative and reproductive growth or push vines toward excess vigor (Baldi et al., 2022; Hasan et al., 2023). Material choice matters strongly: in nutrient-poor soils, spent mushroom compost performed better than straw or pruning-debris mulch for short-term vine development because of its richer nutrient composition and lower C/N ratio (Mairata et al., 2024). Rate also matters: grapevine seedlings responded best to 25% organic substitution with spent mushroom substrate, while higher substitution rates failed to further improve soil N, photosynthesis, or root architecture (Han et al., 2025). Reviews of vineyard fertilization similarly conclude that fertilizer systems should combine manure, mineral fertilizer, and supplemental nutrition over time, and that high mineral doses can reduce yield (Monastyrskiy et al., 2022).

Optimization also requires site- and cultivar-specific nutrient management. Vineyard fertilizer programs should be nutrient-specific and based on soil testing, plant analysis, pruning returns, and management factors that shape nutrient-use efficiency. Long-term field data collected by Lisek and Popińska (2025) in Poland showed that organic fertilizers, AMF, and biostimulants were not adequate substitutes for mineral fertilization in low-organic-matter soils, especially for N supply, and that mineral fertilization should be continuously readjusted rather than applied routinely. Subtropical vineyards also showed cultivar-dependent responses: grape pomace compost and vermicompost increased soil P and K availability, but leaf nutrient status, yield, and quality changed little in Chardonnay and sometimes declined in Isabella, especially under already adequate soil fertility or high-rainfall conditions (Kokkonen et al., 2025).

These findings support a shift from fixed fertilizer recipes toward adaptive nutrient management (Figure 3). Organic fertilizer type and substitution rate should be determined according to soil nutrient status, amendment mineralization characteristics, cultivar demand, irrigation conditions, and plant nutritional diagnosis, followed by continuous monitoring and adjustment during vineyard production.

8 Conclusions and Future Research Directions

Existing studies indicate that the role of organic fertilizers in vineyards extends beyond simple nutrient supplementation and contributes to the overall improvement of soil health. Plant residues and other organic amendments can increase soil organic matter and nutrient levels, enhance microbial and enzymatic activities, improve soil water and aeration conditions, and strengthen agroecosystem resilience. Combined application of organic and mineral fertilizers can also promote grape yield formation while maintaining favorable soil properties, with available nitrogen, available potassium, and soil enzyme activities showing relatively close associations with yield responses.

Organic fertilization is beneficial for grape yield and fruit quality, although responses vary among cultivars and growing conditions. In ‘Shine Muscat’ grape, reducing nitrogen application by 20%-30% while supplementing with organic fertilizer increased yield, sugar-acid ratio, vitamin C content, and economic returns, with the 0.8N + OF treatment showing particularly favorable performance. Some studies have also reported that organic cultivation can enhance antioxidant activity and increase flavonoid and phenolic contents in seedless grapes. However, other studies have found higher yields under conventional fertilization or no significant effects of organic fertilizers on most quality traits of Syrah grapes, indicating that the effectiveness of organic fertilization is strongly dependent on cultivar and environmental conditions.

Current research is also constrained by factors such as soil conditions, climate, cultivar, and management practices. Soil temperature, moisture, initial fertility, texture, and pH can all influence organic fertilizer mineralization, nutrient uptake, and the resulting agronomic effects. Fertilization strategies should therefore be dynamically adjusted according to soil testing, plant nutritional status, and actual management conditions. Long-term field experiments in vineyards remain limited, and many studies have lasted only 2-3 years, which is insufficient to fully evaluate the long-term ecological and production effects of organic fertilization.

Future research should place greater emphasis on the mechanisms underlying soil-microbe-root interactions and integrate approaches such as metagenomics and metabolomics to clarify how organic fertilizers regulate nutrient cycling and the rhizosphere microenvironment. At the same time, precision organic nutrient management systems should be developed by jointly considering organic fertilizer quality, mineralization rate, irrigation, ground-cover management, cultivar-specific nutrient requirements, and local climatic conditions. Integrating soil and plant diagnostics with real-time monitoring and data-driven decision-making tools will further support dynamic fertilization and the sustainable management of vineyards.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Ms. Wang for her assistance in organizing the literature materials. The authors also extend special thanks to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their comprehensive evaluation of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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