1 Introduction

Sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) is an important high-value horticultural crop with strong commercial relevance in the fresh-fruit market. Consumers generally evaluate its quality according to fruit appearance, flavor, texture, and nutritional value, among which fruit size, color, firmness, and freshness directly affect market grading and selling price (Correia et al., 2017; Çolak et al., 2025). Because sweet cherry has a concentrated harvest period, a short shelf life, and high requirements for maintaining class I fruit quality during distribution, its commercial competitiveness depends not only on yield but also on the stability of fruit quality during picking, grading, packaging, storage, and transportation (Ivanova et al., 2023). However, sweet cherry is a typical highly perishable fresh fruit. After harvest, it is prone to flesh softening, water loss, decay, and mechanical injury, which shorten shelf life and restrict long-distance transportation (Chockchaisawasdee et al., 2016). Among these quality attributes, fruit firmness is particularly important. Firmer fruit can better withstand external damage during postharvest handling and logistics, while also meeting consumer demand for a crisp and tender texture (Blanco et al., 2021). Previous studies have shown that cherry firmness usually decreases continuously during storage, accompanied by changes in acidity, soluble solids balance, and other quality indices, ultimately affecting commercial life and market value (Beinsan et al., 2025; Xing et al., 2025).

Sweet cherry fruit have a short developmental period, usually requiring only 60–80 days from bloom to harvest. During this stage, fruit compete strongly with vegetative organs such as leaves and shoots for carbohydrates and mineral nutrients. Therefore, source–sink relationships and nutrient supply have important effects on final fruit quality (Matteo et al., 2022; Santos et al., 2024). Appropriate crop load, sufficient assimilate supply, and suitable mineral nutrition levels help promote fruit enlargement, sugar and acid accumulation, and tissue structure formation. In contrast, source limitation or nutrient imbalance during fruit development may lead to smaller fruit, reduced flavor, and softer texture (Quiroz et al., 2023). Thus, nutrient management is not only related to tree growth and yield formation, but also directly involved in fruit cell wall construction, membrane system stability, and the development of postharvest resistance to deterioration.

Among the mineral elements affecting cherry firmness and storability, calcium, potassium, and magnesium have received considerable attention. Calcium can bind to cell wall components such as pectin and cellulose, strengthen cell wall stability, and participate in the regulation of membrane permeability and stress signaling. It is therefore closely associated with flesh tissue rigidity and resistance to softening (Varaldo and Giacalone, 2025). Potassium is one of the most abundant macronutrients in cherry fruit and is associated with fruit size, soluble solids, maturity progression, and changes in firmness (Ateş et al., 2022). Magnesium indirectly affects fruit quality formation by participating in photosynthesis, carbon metabolism, and various enzymatic reactions. In recent years, foliar nutrient application has been regarded as an important measure for rapidly regulating fruit mineral composition, alleviating nutrient deficiencies under field conditions, and improving postharvest quality (Santos et al., 2024).

Existing studies have shown that preharvest spraying or postharvest calcium treatment can, to some extent, improve cherry firmness, reduce weight loss, decrease decay incidence, and alleviate pedicel shriveling. However, these effects are often influenced by cultivar, environment, fruit developmental stage, and the efficiency of calcium uptake and transport (Belge et al., 2017; Winkler and Knoche, 2019). Calcium supplementation during early fruit development may be more favorable for calcium entry into the fruit and its participation in cell wall structure formation. As fruit expand rapidly, however, declining calcium concentration and restricted late-stage calcium import may weaken its regulatory effect (Matteo et al., 2022). The proportional relationship among mineral elements should also not be overlooked. Studies have shown that fruit firmness is positively correlated with calcium content but negatively correlated with K:Ca and N:Ca ratios, indicating that simply increasing the supply of a single element does not necessarily lead to stable quality improvement (Blanco et al., 2021; Quiroz et al., 2023). For example, potassium fertilization can help increase fruit weight, soluble solids, and some quality attributes, but excessive potassium supply may also reduce fruit calcium and magnesium concentrations, thereby affecting firmness retention (Ateş et al., 2022). Preharvest treatments with nutritional or metabolic regulatory functions, such as arginine and prohexadione-calcium, have also been reported to improve fruit firmness and storage quality, further suggesting that preharvest nutritional physiology influences postharvest performance (Pakkish and Mohammadrezakhani, 2022).

This study focuses on calcium, potassium, magnesium, and related nutrient regulation measures, and discusses their effects on structural development, firmness retention, and postharvest longevity of cherry fruit. It further explores practical strategies such as balanced fertilization, foliar nutrient supplementation, nutrient ratio adjustment, and synchronized nutrient supply during critical developmental stages. By emphasizing multi-element coordination and integrated preharvest–postharvest management, this study may provide a theoretical basis and practical reference for improving cherry fruit firmness, reducing storage losses, and enhancing commercial value.

2 Physiological Basis of Cherry Firmness and Shelf Life

2.1 Formation of firmness

Cherry fruit firmness arises from the combined effects of cell wall strength, middle lamella adhesion, and cell turgor (Figure 1). In fleshy fruits, firmness is determined by the mechanical properties of parenchyma cell walls and the extent of adhesion between adjacent cells, with tissue strength declining when these properties are modified during ripening (Posé et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2023). In sweet cherry, firmness is closely tied to storability and resistance to mechanical injury during handling, which is why firmer fruit better tolerate packing and transport (Correia et al., 2017; Matteo et al., 2022). Differences in mechanical behavior among cherry cultivars are also explained in part by physical and chemical differences in the cell wall, linking tissue mechanics directly to wall composition.

Figure 1 Physiological mechanisms underlying firmness formation and postharvest softening in sweet cherry fruit Image caption: Fruit firmness is mainly determined by cell wall strength, middle lamella adhesion, cell turgor, and membrane integrity. During storage, cell wall-degrading enzymes promote pectin solubilization and polysaccharide disassembly, while respiration, water loss, and membrane deterioration accelerate firmness loss and senescence

At the structural level, the primary cell wall consists mainly of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of pectins and hemicelluloses, and this composite architecture underpins tissue rigidity (Hocking et al., 2016; Zhai et al., 2021). Pectin, cellulose, and hemicellulose are the major wall polysaccharides that change during ripening and softening (Guo et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023). Pectin is especially important because it can account for a large fraction of fruit wall mass and contributes strongly to intercellular adhesion through the middle lamella (Matteo et al., 2022). Cellulose provides a comparatively stable structural scaffold, while hemicellulose helps connect the wall matrix; in cherry and related fruits, higher cellulose and hemicellulose contents are associated with firmer texture. Pectin solubilization and hemicellulose degradation appear to be especially important in determining firmness differences between hard- and soft-fleshed cherry types (Posé et al., 2019).

2.2 Postharvest softening and senescence

Postharvest softening is a major determinant of shelf life because it is an irreversible ripening outcome that reduces market quality after harvest (Zhai et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2025). The central mechanism is cell wall disassembly. During ripening and storage, pectins and matrix glycans are depolymerized and solubilized, neutral sugars are lost from pectin side chains, and intercellular adhesion weakens, which together increase cell separation and reduce firmness (Posé et al., 2019). In cherries, softening is associated with increased activities of pectin methylesterase, polygalacturonase, β-galactosidase, and related enzymes that damage cell wall components during storage (Correia et al., 2017). Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolases, expansins, cellulases, and polygalacturonases also participate in coordinated wall loosening by acting on hemicellulose, cellulose, and pectin networks (Su et al., 2023).

Softening during storage is also driven by respiration, water loss, and membrane deterioration. Sweet cherries have a high respiration rate, and postharvest dehydration contributes directly to softening and senescence (Correia et al., 2017; Çolak et al., 2025). Weight loss rises substantially during cold storage as tissue moisture declines, and this mass loss reflects the combined effects of water loss and respiration. Water loss is aggravated by the fruit’s thin peel and depends partly on cuticle integrity, since the cuticle limits permeability, infections, and firmness loss (Wang et al., 2025). Reduced turgor further accelerates texture loss, and membrane deterioration during storage is reflected by higher malondialdehyde and relative conductivity, both of which are reduced by calcium treatments (Wu et al., 2023).

2.3 Nutrient-dependent processes

Among nutrients, calcium has the clearest physiological role in maintaining firmness. Calcium cross-links de-esterified homogalacturonan to form calcium-pectate gels, increasing wall stiffness and strengthening cell-to-cell adhesion in the middle lamella (Guo et al., 2023). More broadly, calcium influences cell wall properties, membrane stability, water relations, and ripening-related signaling, so low fruit calcium can promote leaky membranes, irregular softening, and poorer storage behavior (Hocking et al., 2016). In sweet cherry, calcium-treated fruit were firmer and showed lower weight loss and decay incidence during storage, while foliar calcium also improved tissue rheological properties and reduced respiration (Belge et al., 2017; Matteo et al., 2022; Michailidis et al., 2022). Calcium effects are partly explained by reduced wall degradation, since calcium can inhibit pectin degradation and suppress the activity or expression of softening-related enzymes and genes. Calcium import into cherry fruit declines as development progresses because xylem functionality is progressively lost, which helps explain why early-season calcium supply is often more effective than late applications (Winkler et al., 2020).

Potassium and carbohydrate status also shape fruit texture, but their effects are more conditional than those of calcium. Carbohydrate availability during fruit development is required for high-quality sweet cherry, and altered phloem transport can produce larger and sweeter fruit that are nevertheless softer when calcium concentration declines and K:Ca and N:Ca ratios rise (Quiroz et al., 2023). Fruit firmness is positively related to calcium concentration and negatively related to K:Ca and N:Ca ratios, indicating that nutrient balance matters as much as absolute potassium supply. This is consistent with production studies showing that fruit grown under high tunnels had lower calcium, higher K:Ca ratios, and lower firmness . At the same time, potassium fertilization can improve firmness and nutrient content, and potassium is widely associated with fruit quality traits such as size, soluble solids, and maturity (Winkler et al., 2020).

3 Key Nutrients Affecting Cherry Fruit Firmness

3.1 Calcium management for firmness enhancement

Calcium management is central to firmness enhancement because calcium accumulation in fruit is closely tied to water delivery, apoplastic transport, and cell wall binding. Fruit calcium distribution depends strongly on water flow and apoplasmic interactions, and localized deficiencies can arise from differences in xylem structure, water relations, and pectin composition (Hocking et al., 2016). In sweet cherry, natural calcium concentration tends to decline during fruit development, indicating that calcium import slows while ongoing fruit enlargement dilutes accumulated calcium (Matteo et al., 2022). Foliar uptake remains possible after fruit set, but timing matters: early applications are generally more effective because young fruit stomata are functional, whereas later uptake increasingly occurs through the epidermis and the pedicel–fruit junction. Evidence from ‘Santina’ also suggests that firmness increases as calcium mass per fruit rises to about 1.3 mg, after which additional calcium shows little further firmness benefit, implying a threshold rather than a linear response (Blanco et al., 2021).

Calcium enhances firmness primarily by strengthening the cell wall and limiting softening processes. Ca²⁺ cross-links pectic polymers, helps form cell wall networks, increases mechanical strength, and can restrict the access of wall-degrading hydrolases (Hocking et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2023). In cherry systems, calcium treatments consistently retard firmness loss and postharvest deterioration: calcium-treated ‘Celeste’ fruit were firmer and had lower weight loss and decay than controls, while calcium-treated sweet cherries in cold storage maintained firmness and showed lower respiration (Belge et al., 2017; Erbaş and Koyuncu, 2021). Mechanistically, exogenous calcium reduces the activity or expression of softening-related enzymes and genes, including pectin methylesterase, polygalacturonase, cellulase, β-galactosidase, and expansin-associated pathways (Jaime-Guerrero et al., 2024). Calcium also helps reduce cracking because stronger and less rupture-prone cell walls better withstand excessive water uptake, and preharvest or postharvest calcium applications have been associated with lower cracking incidence in cherries (Matteo et al., 2022; Varaldo and Giacalone, 2025).

3.2 Potassium and magnesium regulation

Potassium and magnesium regulate cherry quality through complementary effects on growth, carbohydrate economy, and mineral balance. Potassium is the most abundant mineral element in sweet cherry fruit, often exceeding 4 500 mg/kg, and functions as a major osmotic solute that supports cell expansion, stomatal activity, photosynthesis, protein synthesis, and energy metabolism (Zhang et al., 2025). Because of these functions, potassium is closely linked to fruit size and sugar movement; recent work describes it as vital for increasing fruit size, soluble solids, color development, maturity advance, and yield (Erbaş and Koyuncu, 2021). Foliar potassium-based programs in sweet cherry have increased the proportion of marketable large fruit and improved storage firmness, while broader fertilizer studies associate potassium application with increased fruit length, fruit weight, and flesh firmness (Varaldo and Giacalone, 2025). However, potassium effects on firmness are not independent of calcium status. In ‘Santina’, fruit firmness was negatively correlated with the K:Ca ratio, and fruit grown under tunnels had both higher K:Ca and lower firmness, indicating that excessive potassium relative to calcium can weaken the firmness advantage otherwise gained from growth promotion (Blanco et al., 2021).

Magnesium supports firmness more indirectly through its role in photosynthesis and assimilate supply. Magnesium is a component of phytin, pectin, and many enzymes, and it contributes to the transport of both K⁺ and Ca²⁺ within plant tissues. It is also one of the principal characteristic mineral elements identified in sweet cherry fruit and is required for secondary metabolism and overall plant function (Zhang et al., 2025). By sustaining chlorophyll function, carbon assimilation, and carbohydrate production, magnesium helps maintain the assimilate supply needed for fruit growth and compositional quality. Recent foliar nutrition studies reported that magnesium treatments, particularly moderate-to-high rates, produced sweeter cherries and enhanced color development, consistent with a role in supporting source activity and sugar accumulation (Sandilya et al., 2023; Usmani et al., 2025). Even so, magnesium balance matters: the Mg:Ca ratio was negatively related to firmness in ‘Santina’, which indicates that beneficial magnesium effects on plant physiology do not substitute for adequate calcium in firm fruit tissues (Blanco et al., 2021).

3.3 Micronutrients related to tissue strength

Micronutrients contribute to tissue strength mainly through boron-mediated cell wall stabilization and through zinc- and manganese-dependent enzyme systems. Boron is particularly important because most plant boron is located in the cell wall, where it plays a major role in cell wall formation and mechanical strength (Thakur et al., 2023; Álvarez-Herrera et al., 2025). Boron is also functionally linked with calcium. It interacts with calcium and other nutrients, and boron deficiency can hinder calcium allocation to the tree canopy and edible fruit tissues (Vera-Maldonado et al., 2024). More broadly, boron influences uptake, absorption, and accumulation processes and is slightly mobile in the phloem, which helps explain why deficiency in rapidly growing tissues can disrupt fruit quality (Thakur et al., 2023). In sweet cherry, preflowering boron application increased endogenous boron content at early growth stages, improved fruit set, and promoted mesocarp cell enlargement, indicating that boron supports structural fruit development from the start of the season (Michailidis et al., 2023). Boron also delays softening by reducing cell wall enzyme activities and limiting the transfer of wall-bound boron away from structural compartments, thereby helping maintain firmness during postharvest life.

Zinc and manganese are less directly studied in cherry firmness than calcium or boron, but the available evidence supports roles in enzyme activity, photosynthesis, and fruit development. Boron-centered reviews identify both Zn and Mn among the essential micronutrients that interact with boron in plant nutritional networks, with the cell wall acting as an important intermediary of these interactions (Long and Peng, 2023). Zn homeostasis is linked to transporter regulation, root development, and optimized uptake, while Mn homeostasis is linked to transporter regulation and chlorophyll production, which is essential for photosynthesis (Usmani et al., 2025). In sweet cherry fruit, Zn and Mn are consistently present at low but measurable concentrations, typically within the broader 0.45–19 mg/kg range reported for Zn, Mn, B, Fe, Cu, and Na, which indicates that they are regular components of the fruit mineral matrix rather than incidental contaminants (Zhang et al., 2025). Practical evidence from fruit crops further suggests that combined micronutrient programs can improve fruit growth and quality traits, and cherry-focused work has cited positive effects of adding microelements such as B, Fe, and Zn to calcium-based spray programs for cracking management (Matteo et al., 2022; Sandilya et al., 2023).

Calcium remains the primary nutrient for direct firmness retention in cherry, while potassium, magnesium, boron, zinc, and manganese influence firmness and shelf life through growth, assimilate supply, and mineral balance. The most effective orchard strategy appears to be balanced, stage-specific nutrient management that increases fruit calcium while avoiding antagonistic nutrient ratios and supporting overall fruit development.

4 Nutrient Management Strategies During Cherry Fruit Development

4.1 Pre-bloom and bloom-stage nutrition

Early-season nutrition determines reproductive success because flower viability, fruit set, and the initial sink strength of young fruit are established around bloom, when cherry is highly sensitive to environmental and nutritional constraints (Xu et al., 2023). Pre-bloom nutrient programs should therefore prioritize adequate reserves and timely supply of nutrients linked to reproductive development, especially boron and calcium, while maintaining sufficient leaf support for carbohydrate supply to developing flowers and fruitlets (Figure 2) (Matteo et al., 2022; Bons and Sharma, 2023).

Figure 2 Stage-specific nutrient management strategy for enhancing sweet cherry firmness and shelf life Image caption: Early calcium supply during dormancy, bloom, and Stage I fruit development is emphasized because calcium import into fruit declines as xylem function weakens. Boron should be supplied around flowering, while potassium and magnesium should be moderately regulated during fruit enlargement and maturation. Postharvest calcium treatment and cold storage technologies can further delay firmness loss

Fruit set depends on both reproductive nutrition and source–sink balance. In sweet cherry, high crop load is negatively associated with fruit quality, while regulation of fruit set alters leaf:fruit ratio and assimilate availability to the remaining fruitlets (Parveze et al., 2024). Boron is especially important at this stage because deficiency reduces fruit set in sweet cherry, and preflowering boron supply increases endogenous boron during early growth, improves fruit set, and promotes mesocarp cell enlargement (Michailidis et al., 2023; Arredondo et al., 2024). Not all bloom-stage B interventions are beneficial under all conditions, however, since a 0.01% boric acid spray reduced fruit set in one frost-prone field study, indicating that bloom applications require careful context-specific management rather than routine use (Xu et al., 2023).

Early calcium supply is physiologically justified because mineral influx into cherry fruit is fastest during early development, when xylem flow still dominates, whereas xylem functionality declines later toward maturity (Winkler et al., 2020; Michailidis et al., 2021). Calcium applied during dormancy can enter dormant flower buds and phloem, and high-dose dormant applications improved later fruit calcium status, cracking incidence, and fruit set. Boron supplementation is also effective when targeted early: soil-applied ^10B at full bloom was absorbed more strongly than pre-senescence application, whereas boron applied directly to flowers remained largely in the fruit, making floral boron a useful complementary method to support current-season fruit demand (Arredondo et al., 2024). Evidence from other fruit systems also supports combined B + Ca programs for firmer tissues and longer shelf life, consistent with their complementary roles in cell-wall structure and fruit integrity (Islam et al., 2016).

4.2 Fruit expansion and maturation-stage nutrition

During fruit enlargement, nutrient management must support cell expansion and sugar accumulation without allowing calcium dilution, nutrient imbalance, or excessive vegetative growth to weaken firmness (Matteo et al., 2022; Ateş et al., 2022; He et al., 2025). This stage is where the benefits of potassium become clear, but also where antagonism between potassium and calcium becomes a major management concern.

Potassium is strongly associated with cherry fruit quality and can increase fruit size, weight, soluble solids, and firmness when adequately supplied (Ateş et al., 2022; Santos et al., 2024). In sweet cherry, soil K application before full bloom increased fruit length by 9%, fruit weight by 23%, flesh firmness by 24%, and water-soluble dry matter by 20%. However, potassium can also decrease fruit calcium and magnesium concentrations, and increasing the K:Ca ratio can hinder calcium uptake and weaken the mineral balance associated with firm fruit (He et al., 2025). This balance matters because fruit calcium concentrations naturally decline during development through reduced import and dilution by growth, so late enlargement strategies should combine potassium support with continued calcium management rather than emphasizing K alone (Matteo et al., 2022; Winkler et al., 2020).

Balanced fertilization is essential because sweet cherry fruit compete with vegetative sinks for both carbohydrates and nutrients during their short development period (Matteo et al., 2022; Santos et al., 2024). Nitrogen supports canopy development and photosynthesis, but excess nitrogen promotes excessive vegetative growth at the expense of fruit formation and maturation and is associated with fruit softening (Varaldo and Giacalone, 2025; Varaldo et al., 2023). Recent foliar nutrient trials also suggest that nitrogen-containing formulations can accelerate cell expansion and softening, which may compromise cell-wall integrity even when fruit growth is improved (Varaldo et al., 2023). For firmness-oriented orchard management, the target should therefore be moderate vegetative vigor, adequate leaf area, and nutrient ratios that avoid excessive N:Ca and K:Ca imbalance (He et al., 2025).

4.3 Foliar and soil application strategies

Both foliar and soil nutrient delivery can contribute to firmness and shelf life, but they serve different purposes: foliar sprays are faster and more target-oriented for short-term correction, whereas soil fertilization and fertigation are better suited to maintaining seasonal nutrient availability and root-zone balance (Bons and Sharma, 2023). The most effective programs integrate both approaches according to phenological stage and nutrient mobility (Santos et al., 2024).

Foliar calcium sprays can improve firmness, reduce cracking, and enhance storage performance, but their effects are often inconsistent because calcium penetration into cherry fruit is erratic and declines with fruit age (Winkler and Knoche, 2019). Timing is therefore critical. In unthinned trees, a Stage I CaCl₂ spray produced higher firmness than sprays at Stages II or III, while early sprays improved fruit textural properties even under high crop load (Matteo et al., 2022). Later sprays can still be useful for cracking reduction, since applications at 39 or 62 days after full bloom reduced cracking in thinned trees (Matteo et al., 2022). Cultivar response remains variable, with calcium improving firmness in Sweetheart and Regina but not Bing in one study, so spray programs should be adjusted by cultivar and local conditions.

Soil fertilization and fertigation remain the foundation for sustaining nutrient supply across the season, particularly for potassium, magnesium, nitrogen, and background calcium and boron nutrition (Santos et al., 2024). Soil K fertilization applied under the canopy before bloom improved several fruit quality traits, showing that root-zone supply can effectively influence later firmness and soluble solids (Ateş et al., 2022). Boron management through the soil is also stage-sensitive: application at full bloom enhances absorption and whole-tree distribution more than application before leaf senescence, while late-season soil B may still help build reserves for the following year (Arredondo et al., 2024). More broadly, root-zone nutrient management should avoid indiscriminate fertilizer use, because excess input can impair mineral balance and create environmental costs, whereas stage-specific nutrient modulation and synchronized fertigation improve both nutrient-use efficiency and fruit quality outcomes (He et al., 2025).

5 Effects of Nutrient Management on Cherry Shelf Life

5.1 Reduction of postharvest softening

Postharvest softening is a primary limit on cherry shelf life, and mineral nutrition can slow this process by preserving wall structure and reducing physiological deterioration. The strongest evidence supports calcium, including both preharvest sprays and postharvest dips, although some newer work suggests calcium source and combination treatments also matter (Belge et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2023).

Calcium delays softening by reducing the activity of enzymes that degrade pectin and other wall polysaccharides during storage (Çelik et al., 2022). In Chinese cherry, preharvest calcium treatments reduced PME, PG, Cx, and β-Gal activities and down-regulated key softening-related genes, indicating direct suppression of cell wall disassembly (Wu et al., 2023). In ‘Celeste’ sweet cherry, calcium treatment increased firmness and was associated with changes in cell wall metabolism, while cold storage itself inhibited PaβGal and PaEXP1 transcript accumulation before expression partly recovered during shelf life (Belge et al., 2017). These findings are consistent with the broader interpretation that calcium helps maintain the middle lamella and slows the resolution of pectic structure that normally accompanies ripening and storage (Erbaş and Koyuncu, 2023).

Calcium also prolongs shelf life by maintaining membrane stability and lowering oxidative deterioration during storage. Postharvest calcium application in hydro-cooling water increased fruit tissue calcium by 29%–85% in ‘Sweetheart’ and 39%–188% in ‘Lapins’, while reducing respiration, membrane lipid peroxidation, ascorbic acid degradation, titratable acidity loss, decay, and pitting (Wang et al., 2014). In Chinese cherry, exogenous calcium decreased malondialdehyde content and relative electrical conductivity while increasing antioxidant enzyme activities, which supports a membrane-protective role beyond simple wall strengthening (Wu et al., 2023). Combined pre- and postharvest calcium gluconate similarly suppressed respiration and delayed losses of firmness, acidity, sensory quality, and decay during cold storage, although responses varied with calcium source and treatment sequence (Erbaş and Koyuncu, 2023).

5.2 Improvement of resistance to cracking and decay

Nutrient management also affects shelf life indirectly by reducing skin failure before or after harvest and by limiting subsequent microbial invasion. This relationship is important because cracked fruit are much more vulnerable to fungal infection and commercial rejection (Çolak et al., 2025).

Calcium consistently reduces cracking in many cherry studies, although the magnitude varies. Preharvest foliar calcium treatments reduced cracking by 38%–66% in ‘0900 Ziraat’, with calcium chloride and calcium hydroxide among the most effective compounds, and calcium chloride also increased firmness by about 12% relative to other compounds (Eroğul, 2014). More recent orchard trials found that calcium- and potassium-based foliar treatments reduced cracking and improved firmness and weight retention during storage, while dormant-bud calcium application also lowered on-tree cracking and improved harvest quality traits (Michailidis et al., 2021; Varaldo and Giacalone, 2025). Boron contributes mainly through its interaction with calcium transport and wall structure. Under boron-deficient soil, calcium allocation shifted toward roots and pits, while calcium in the edible flesh and peel was higher under boron-adequate conditions, indicating that boron deficiency weakens the calcium status most relevant to cracking resistance (Bonomelli et al., 2025).

Reduced decay after calcium treatment appears to reflect both stronger tissues and slower physiological breakdown. Calcium-treated ‘Celeste’ fruit had lower decay incidence than controls (Belge et al., 2017). Hydro-cooling with calcium chloride decreased decay in both ‘Sweetheart’ and ‘Lapins’ cherries, alongside lower membrane lipid peroxidation and respiration (Wang et al., 2014). A mechanistic explanation is that calcium promotes pectate formation, strengthens intercellular adhesion, and suppresses wall-degrading enzymes, which makes pathogen penetration more difficult (Çolak et al., 2025). Nutrient balance also matters because excess nitrogen appears to favor softening, and calcium responses are often inconsistent when uptake into fruit is limited or mineral ratios are unfavorable (Winkler and Knoche, 2019).

5.3 Interaction with storage conditions

Nutrient effects on shelf life are strongest when considered together with storage environment, especially low temperature and modified atmosphere packaging. The evidence supports synergy between calcium status and storage technology, but also shows that storage conditions can either reveal or mask nutrient benefits (Matteo et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2025; Cui et al., 2025).

Cold storage preserves cherries, but fruit nutrient status strongly influences how well quality is maintained over time. Early crop load reduction improved storage condition after 45 days at 0 °C, and early foliar CaCl₂ sprays improved firmness under high crop load, indicating that preharvest calcium management can improve cold storage performance before fruit enter storage (Matteo et al., 2022). Calcium-treated fruit generally lose less weight and maintain greater firmness during refrigerated storage, as shown in ‘Celeste’, ‘Regina’, and ‘Sweetheart’ studies (Varaldo and Giacalone, 2025). Combined pre- and postharvest calcium gluconate was especially effective during three weeks of cold storage, giving the best suppression of respiration and the slowest losses of firmness and sensory quality (Erbaş and Koyuncu, 2023).

Modified atmosphere packaging improves cherry storage by lowering respiration and water loss, and nutrient treatments can enhance these benefits. MAP significantly retarded weight loss and, when combined with a preharvest treatment, helped maintain firmness and reduce decay during cold storage and shelf life in ‘0900 Ziraat’ (Aglar et al., 2017). Postharvest CaCl₂ plus MAP reduced respiration and preserved quality traits and bioactive compounds better than untreated controls, with the lowest decay and weight loss generally occurring in the combined treatment during storage (Çolak et al., 2025). Optimized MAP also maintained firmness, acidity, vitamin C, and lower browning and decay over long cold storage, but its success depended on film permeability and gas composition, so nutrient benefits are contingent on a well-matched storage atmosphere rather than MAP alone (Cui et al., 2025).

6 Integrated Orchard Practices Supporting Nutrient Management

6.1 Irrigation and nutrient uptake coordination

Water management strongly conditions nutrient uptake because calcium transport depends on xylem flow, while potassium acquisition and distribution respond to root activity and soil solution dynamics (Figure 3). In sweet cherry, higher irrigation volumes were associated with lower cracking at harvest and were hypothesized to favor calcium uptake and incorporation into fruit cells, even though final fruit Ca concentration differences were not always significant (Measham et al., 2013). This inconsistency matches broader review evidence showing that calcium effects on cherry quality are often variable because Ca movement into fruit is physiologically constrained and sometimes erratic (Winkler and Knoche, 2019).

Figure 3 Integrated preharvest and postharvest management system for extending sweet cherry shelf life

Orchard nutrient management should be coordinated with irrigation, canopy structure, crop load regulation, soil health, postharvest calcium treatment, cold storage, and modified atmosphere packaging. This integrated system helps reduce softening, cracking, decay, water loss, and quality deterioration during storage and distribution.

Soil moisture affects calcium most directly because Ca is xylem-mobile and fruit import declines as development proceeds, so sustained water supply early in fruit growth helps maintain transport to the fruit (Winkler and Knoche, 2019; Matteo et al., 2022). Potassium responds differently: K fertilization increased fruit size, weight, firmness, and soluble solids, but also reduced fruit Ca and Mg concentrations, showing that uptake benefits can be offset by antagonism if water and fertilizer management drive excessive K relative to Ca (Ateş et al., 2022). Environmental conditions also modify these responses, since rainfall and temperature significantly influenced cherry quality parameters in a three-year fertilization study, emphasizing that nutrient outcomes cannot be separated from orchard water status (Santos et al., 2024).

Fertigation improves nutrient-use efficiency when timing is synchronized with developmental demand rather than applied as a large undifferentiated seasonal dose. Sweet cherry management benefits from understanding nutrient availability during blossom, fruit growth, harvest, and postharvest periods, because synchronized fertilization improves application efficiency and fruit quality (Santos et al., 2024). Although the strongest direct fertigation evidence in the supplied set comes from broader fruit-crop literature, integrated soil fertility management in perennial fruit systems consistently shows that combining inorganic fertilizers with organic inputs and microbial inoculants improves agronomic response and soil health more effectively than relying on a single nutrient source (Srivastava et al., 2021). In practice, efficient fertigation for cherry should therefore emphasize moderate, stage-specific nutrient supply and avoid indiscriminate chemical fertilization, which has been identified more generally as a cause of poor nutrient balance and lower system efficiency (Srivastava et al., 2021; Varaldo et al., 2023).

6.2 Canopy and crop load management

Canopy architecture and crop load regulate how effectively nutrient supply is converted into fruit quality because they determine light interception, carbon assimilation, and competition among fruit and vegetative sinks. Low-light stress in sweet cherry reduces leaf light capture, damages photosynthetic performance, restricts carbon assimilation, and reduces nutrient accumulation in fruit (Tang et al., 2023). At the same time, fruit yield and quality are positively related to leaf area per fruit, and heavy crop load is associated with smaller, poorer-quality cherries (Matteo et al., 2022).

A favorable canopy light environment supports fruit nutrient accumulation indirectly by sustaining photosynthesis and carbohydrate export to fruit. In sweet cherry, shading reduced fruit weight, sugar content, and vitamin C, while increasing acidity, consistent with lower assimilate availability and poorer maturation under canopy closure (Tang et al., 2023). Evidence from other fruit trees points in the same direction: fruit in better-lit canopy positions accumulated more sugars, dry matter, and secondary metabolites in apple, and exposed high-light fruit showed more favorable metabolite profiles in peach (Anthony et al., 2021; Kviklys et al., 2022). Training systems therefore matter nutritionally as well as structurally, because adequate spacing and planar canopy organization improve light interception and support higher dry matter and soluble solids under commercial cherry production (Stone et al., 2022).

Crop load regulation improves fruit uniformity by reducing competition for carbohydrates and minerals among fruit. Early crop load reduction increased fruit size and weight, and thinned trees showed less pedicel detachment, browning, and decay after 45 days of storage at 0 °C (Matteo et al., 2022). Under high crop load, an early Stage I CaCl₂ spray produced firmer fruit than later sprays, indicating that crop load also alters the effectiveness of nutrient interventions rather than only baseline fruit quality. More broadly, the negative correlations between crop load and fruit dry matter or soluble solids in sweet cherry training-system trials show that uniform quality requires balancing crop number with canopy source capacity, not simply increasing fertilizer supply (Stone et al., 2022).

6.3 Soil health and organic amendments

Soil health practices support nutrient management by improving organic matter, root activity, and the biological processes that regulate nutrient cycling. Reviews across fruit systems show that integrated use of organic fertilizers, composts, and microbial inoculants has become central to sustainable soil fertility management because it improves soil health while supporting quality production (Srivastava et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2024). These practices are especially relevant in perennial orchards, where long-term root-zone function shapes yearly nutrient uptake more than short-term fertilizer additions alone.

Organic matter improvement promotes root activity by enhancing moisture retention, nutrient availability, and the physical environment of the rhizosphere. Soil organic matter is a major driver of soil quality because it affects pH, moisture retention, and nutrient concentrations (Xie et al., 2024). More generally, organic amendments provide a slow-release bank of macro- and micronutrients while improving physical and biological soil properties (Singh et al., 2024). In orchard systems, amendments and biologically active carriers increased root length density and shoot growth in apple, indicating that improved soil conditions can translate into stronger root systems and higher nutrient capture capacity (Ding et al., 2024).

Microbial amendments improve nutrient availability mainly by reshaping rhizosphere communities and strengthening nutrient cycling. Soil amendments increased fungal diversity, increased microbial network complexity, and enhanced bacterial–fungal synergy linked to nutrient cycling functions (Ding et al., 2024). In pear, bio-organic fertilizers increased yield by up to 20%, and adding beneficial bacteria tripled the yield increase achieved by organic fertilizer alone, largely through altered soil chemistry and a more plant-beneficial microbiome (Wang et al., 2022). Integrated fruit-tree intercropping systems likewise increased organic matter, available phosphorus, and available potassium while increasing beneficial microbial groups related to disease prevention and nutrient cycling, although they also carried risks such as soil acidification that require corrective management (Xie et al., 2024).

7 Challenges and Future Development of Cherry Nutrient Management

7.1 Current problems in nutrient management

A central problem is that nutrients are not distributed uniformly among fruits, leaves, peduncles, prunings, and perennial organs. In sweet cherry orchards, N was more evenly distributed across fruits, peduncles, and prunings, whereas K was concentrated in fruits and peduncles and Ca and Mg were retained mainly in fallen leaves, showing that fruit demand does not mirror whole-tree nutrient status (Karampatzakis et al., 2025). Under high yields, K was redistributed from leaves to fruits, further indicating that internal remobilization can intensify organ-to-organ imbalance. Uneven distribution also occurs within the fruit itself: calcium concentration was two- to three-fold higher at the stem end than at the stylar end, and fruit-to-fruit variation in calcium mass was wide even within cultivars (Winkler et al., 2020). Source–sink imbalance compounds this heterogeneity because sweet cherry fruit develop rapidly, compete strongly with vegetative sinks, and depend on adequate leaf area per fruit for uniform quality formation (Matteo et al., 2022).

A second persistent problem is the tendency toward excessive or poorly balanced fertilization. Precision-nutrition reviews note that conventional nutrient management often leads to over-fertilization, uneven nutrient supply, environmental pollution, and economic inefficiency (Singh et al., 2024). Cherry-specific studies likewise emphasize the lack of site-specific fertilization guidelines and the need to account for nutrient removal and recycling rather than replacing nutrients generically (Karampatzakis et al., 2025). Antagonistic interactions make this problem more serious: high K levels can reduce Ca and Mg status, and high nitrogen can depress leaf P and K while also lowering leaf Ca and Mg at excessive rates (Rutkowski and Łysiak, 2023). In sweet cherry fruit, increasing K or N can therefore improve some growth traits while simultaneously worsening the mineral balance associated with firmness and storage potential (Santos et al., 2024).

7.2 Technical limitations in improving firmness and shelf life

The main technical limitation is the difficulty of delivering calcium into cherry fruit at the right place and time. Calcium influx is positively related to transpiration and declines as xylem functionality is progressively lost during fruit development, making late-season correction inherently difficult (Winkler et al., 2020). Natural fruit calcium concentrations also decline during development because import slows while continued growth dilutes accumulated calcium (Matteo et al., 2022). Reviews conclude that preharvest sprays and postharvest dips sometimes increase fruit calcium and improve firmness, cracking, or rot resistance, but at other times they are ineffective because calcium movement through the cuticle is erratic and the uptake pathways remain poorly understood (Winkler and Knoche, 2019). Even when calcium enters tissues, responses are spatially selective: dormant applications reached flower buds and phloem but not vegetative buds, and postharvest hydrocooling increased tissue Ca while reducing pectin solubilization, splitting, decay, and firmness loss (Wang and Long, 2015; Michailidis et al., 2021).

Another limitation is strong variation among cultivars, seasons, and regions. Calcium effects are not always consistent across studies, and cultivar-specific responses are common (Winkler et al., 2020). In one cherry study, calcium improved firmness in Sweetheart and Regina but not in Bing, and fruit Ca concentration responded significantly only in Regina. Seasonal and regional conditions also reshape nutrient outcomes: year effects strongly altered fruit size and quality in Mg/K fertilization trials, and temperature and rainfall were identified as major influences on cherry quality responses (Santos et al., 2024). Even orchards under similar management can differ because of soil texture, pH, age, and rootstock effects, which complicates the transfer of fertilizer recommendations across regions (Karampatzakis et al., 2025).

7.3 Future development trends

Future development will likely center on precision nutrient management based on fruit demand rather than fixed fertilizer schedules. Precision approaches aim to supply the right nutrient amount at the right time and place using real-time information on soil conditions, plant health, and nutrient status (Singh et al., 2024). In cherry, this direction is supported by yield-based nutrient-removal models, where fresh fruit yield showed strong relationships with uptake of N, P, K, Mg, B, and Cu, enabling prediction of orchard nutrient losses (Karampatzakis et al., 2025). Because large fractions of N, P, K, and Mg remain in leaves and prunings, future programs should integrate nutrient recycling with external inputs rather than treating annual fertilization as one-way replacement. Sustainable organic options may also contribute, since compost tea plus compost improved tree water status, photosynthetic performance, yield, and fruit quality in an organic cherry orchard (Gaeta et al., 2025).

A second major trend is the integration of sensors, prediction models, and quality analytics to connect orchard nutrition with firmness and shelf-life outcomes. Reviews of precision nutrient management in fruit crops emphasize remote sensing, variable-rate technology, fertigation, and data-driven decision tools, but also note that validation for specific fruit crops remains limited (Singh et al., 2024). New sensing studies in other fruit systems show that hyperspectral imaging and machine learning can non-destructively predict soluble solids, nutrients, vitamin C, and protein across varieties and seasons, while soil-sensor networks can estimate harvest quality traits from field measurements (Elashmawy and Uysal, 2023; Zhai et al., 2025). Broader Agriculture 4.0 reviews similarly argue that multimodal sensors and AI can improve real-time fruit quality evaluation, although interpreting interacting effects of nutrient imbalance, stress, and disease remains technically complex (Colaco and Kamat, 2025). For cherry, the next step is to combine these tools with nutrient-uptake models and postharvest indicators so that fertilization decisions can be evaluated not only by yield, but by predicted firmness retention, cracking risk, and storage performance.

8 Conclusions and Perspectives

Nutrient regulation is an important approach for improving cherry fruit firmness and storability. Among the relevant nutrients, calcium is most directly associated with fruit firmness and storage performance. Calcium strengthens cell wall structure, maintains membrane system stability, and is closely related to reduced fruit cracking and decay, as well as higher firmness at harvest and during storage. However, the regulatory effect of calcium is strongly constrained by fruit developmental physiology. As fruit enlarge and xylem function declines, calcium influx into the fruit gradually weakens, and fruit calcium concentration is also likely to decrease because of dilution effects. Potassium plays a positive role in promoting fruit enlargement, sugar accumulation, and ripening, and some studies have also shown that it helps maintain firmness. Nevertheless, excessive potassium supply may increase the K:Ca ratio, disrupt calcium and magnesium balance, and consequently weaken fruit storage performance. Magnesium mainly acts indirectly by supporting photosynthesis, carbon assimilation, and quality formation, and its contribution to firmness improvement usually depends on an appropriate calcium–magnesium balance. Boron participates in quality regulation mainly by affecting cell wall structure, nutrient transport, fruit set, and early fruit development, and may promote calcium allocation to edible fruit tissues.

Existing studies indicate that supplementation with a single nutrient is unlikely to consistently improve cherry firmness and storage quality, whereas coordinated regulation of multiple nutrients has greater practical value. Early calcium supplementation, especially at the dormant-bud stage or during Stage I of fruit development, is more favorable for calcium entry into flower buds, phloem, and young fruit tissues, where it can participate in cell wall formation. Although late calcium treatment may have limited effects on firmness improvement, it may still reduce fruit cracking. Combined foliar programs based on calcium and potassium have shown certain advantages in maintaining firmness during storage and reducing weight loss and cracking. Postharvest hydrocooling with 0.2%–0.5% CaCl₂ can also help maintain fruit firmness after cold storage and reduce cracking, decay, acidity loss, and skin discoloration. Therefore, cherry nutrient management should shift from single-element fertilization toward integrated regulation based on developmental stage, nutrient ratios, and postharvest requirements.

In production practice, a stage-specific and balanced nutrient management model should be established. Calcium supply should be advanced, with emphasis on the dormant period, flowering stage, and early fruit development. Boron supply should be ensured around flowering to promote fruit set and early fruit development. Potassium and magnesium can be moderately adjusted from fruit enlargement to ripening to improve fruit size, sugar–acid accumulation, and color quality, but excessive application should be avoided to prevent K:Ca imbalance and fruit softening. Nitrogen management should also remain moderate, because excessive nitrogen application may not only affect leaf phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium contents, but also weaken fruit quality stability. Meanwhile, preharvest thinning, crop-load regulation, and postharvest calcium treatment should be applied in coordination to establish an integrated technical system from orchard management to postharvest preservation.

Future research should further deepen both mechanistic analysis and precision management. On the one hand, it is necessary to clarify the pathways of calcium uptake, cuticular penetration, tissue distribution, and cellular localization in cherry fruit, and to reveal the relationships between elements such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, and boron and cell wall metabolism, membrane stability, ripening regulation, and the expression of softening-related genes. On the other hand, cultivar and site-specific differences should be emphasized, and nutrient management programs suitable for different cultivars, rootstocks, tree ages, soil conditions, and yield levels should be developed. With advances in hyperspectral imaging, soil sensors, nutrient uptake models, and artificial intelligence, cherry nutrient management is expected to move toward a cultivar-specific, sensor-assisted, and recycling-oriented precision model.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Mr. Li for his assistance in organizing the literature materials. The authors also extend special thanks to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their comprehensive evaluation of the manuscript. 

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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