1 Introduction

Vegetable farming is an important income generating activity for smallholder farmers in Nepal. It plays significant role in Nepal’s agricultural economy as a valuable cash crops and provides quick cash, improves household income, food security and livelihood conditions among smallholder farmers. As compared to traditional and cereal based farming systems, vegetable production provides opportunity for higher economic return within short production cycle and limited land resources while having higher demand in the market. Vegetables are considered important for both nutrition and economic reasons. Vegetables are abundant in nutrients, minerals and vitamins. Vegetables consist of phytochemicals which are antioxidant and anti-inflammatory in nature, these properties help reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes, cancers, obesity or cardiovascular diseases (Abobatta, 2021).

Vegetable production, yield, and cultivation area have all steadily increased in Nepal's agriculture sector during the last ten years. While production climbed by 21% in the fiscal year 2020-21, the cultivated area increased by nearly 16% between 2011-12 and 2020-21. But in the last year, productivity has only gone up by 4.38%. With the exception of the fiscal years 2016-17, 2019-20, and 2020-21, the cultivated area, production, and productivity were all steadily rising overall (Ghimire et al., 2023).

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO’s) 2024 data, global fruit and vegetable production reached 2.1 billion tonnes in 2023, which represents a 1% rise compared to 2022 (FAO, 2024). In Nepal, the vegetable industry is the largest subsector, accounting for 80.09% of the country's total horticultural produce and 9.7% of its overall Agricultural Gross Domestic Product (AGDP). Over the past 20 years, Nepal's total per capita vegetable intake has grown from 60 kg to 128.04 kg (Gyawali et al., 2022). An estimated 3,243,521 households cultivate vegetables, with women leading 17% of these households (CASA, 2020).

Despite the growing significance of vegetable farming in Nepal, production is highly influenced by seasonal climate changes, particularly in the mid-hills and high-hills of Nepal. Farmers often face challenges such as disease and pest outbreaks, heavy rainfall, frost, low temperature and limited production opportunity during off-seasons. These challenges impact crop yield, market supply and profitability. Therefore, the adoption of protected cultivation technology including plastic tunnels has emerged as a potential approach to mitigate climatic constraints and boost vegetable production.

Growing out of season crops in a controlled environment within plastic tunnels is generally referred as tunnel farming. Usually, this kind of farming is employed to grow summer vegetables during the off seasons (Sarmah et al., 2022). With the use of these protected cultivation technologies, farmers can design controlled environments that are suited to the unique requirements of their crops, increasing crop quality, productivity, and resource efficiency. The most popular type includes shade houses, polyhouses, greenhouses, and others (Rana and Sahu, 2024). These structures help regulate temperature, conserve soil moisture, protect crops from frost, excessive rainfall and wind damages. These structures reduce the impact of adverse weather conditions and provide favourable environment, improves crop quality, fetch higher market price and extend production periods.  According to Atreya et al. (2020), Nepal's estimated 1,000 hectares of protected farming, 70% are used for vegetable production and 30% are used for fruit and flower cultivation.

Protected vegetable cultivation is especially important for small holder’s farmers in the mid-hill areas of Nepal, where restricted land and climate uncertainties hinder year round yields. Tunnel production allows farmers to cultivate high value vegetable crops like tomatoes, cucumbers, leafy greens with optimum utilization of land and resources. Studies have shown that tunnel technology contributes to improved crop productivity and supports livelihood improvement by increasing production opportunities and strengthening income generation among smallholder farmers (Kc et al., 2021).

Meghang Rural Municipality in the Nuwakot district is emerging as a significant area for vegetable production under tunnel technology. Due to favourable agro-climatic conditions and the growing farmers interest in protected vegetable cultivation, the area has been recognized as a vegetable production zone under the National Agriculture Modernization Program (NAMP). However, few studies have investigated the socio-economic impacts of plastic tunnel vegetable farming at a local level, particularly regarding farmer’s production practices, marketing systems, and how they utilize the income generated for their livelihoods.

Therefore, this study aimed to assess the contribution of tunnel based vegetable farming to household income and livelihood improvement among smallholder farmers in Meghang Rural Municipality, Nuwakot. This study examined farmer’s socioeconomic characteristics, tunnel production practices, vegetable marketing channel, income generation and major constraints affecting vegetable production.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Study area

The study was carried out in Meghang Rural Municipality, Nuwakot (Figure 1). Meghang is a Rural Municipality located in Nuwakot District of Nepal, it has total 6 wards and 98 square kilometers of geographical area, according to 2011 census, it had total population of 13,479 (Karki, 2019). The data was taken from 5 different wards namely, Panera (ward No.6), Samari (ward No.5), Kimtang (ward No.4), Deurali (ward No.3), Bungtang (ward No.2).

The research area represents a mid-hill agro ecological setting ideal for commercial vegetable cultivation. The area has a temperate climate with seasonal changes, where cold winter temperature and significant rainfall during the monsoon season frequently impact open-field vegetable cultivation. These climatic constraints lead farmers to utilize protected methods like plastic tunnels to prolong the growing season and enhance crop yield.

Agriculture serves as the primary source of livelihood in Meghang Rural Municipality, where farmers primarily engage in vegetable cultivation (tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, potato as primary crops), livestock rearing, and diverse farming practices. The grown vegetables are sold via local collection systems, cooperatives, and middleman to nearby urban areas such as Kathmandu which is around a distance of 80 km.

The study area was selected purposively because the region has developed into a growing hub for vegetable production as part of the National Agriculture Modernization Program (NAMP) with a rise in the use of plastic tunnels for commercial vegetable farming.

2.2 Sample size

A household was considered as the sampling unit for the study. A total of 100 households were selected using a simple random sampling technique and the data were recorded from the respective farmers involved in vegetable production under plastic tunnels. The sample size was selected considering the availability of tunnel based vegetable growers, feasibility of household level data collection, time constraints and available resources while maintaining adequate representation of farmers involved in protected vegetable cultivation.

Due to the absence of a complete publicly available database, 100 households were selected using simple random sampling based on the available list of active tunnel vegetable growers and the feasibility of household level data collection. The chosen sample consisted of farmers with various socioeconomic status and farming sizes to reflect differences in tunnel structures, production methods, income generation, and marketing strategies.

2.3 Data collection

Primary data were acquired by direct personal interview and household survey using semi-structured questionnaires. An objectively prepared survey questionnaire was created to collect necessary primary data and information on the socioeconomic profile of vegetable growers under plastic tunnels, demographic information about family members, farmer landholdings, farming practices, and income status.

The secondary data were gathered from a variety of published and unpublished materials from different sources. These materials contain annual reports from Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD), Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC), and District Agriculture Development Office (DADO), as well as research papers, articles, and journals.

2.4 Data analysis

The gathered data were organized, coded and analyzed using Microsoft excel. Descriptive statistical tools were used to summarize the characteristic of respondents and their production practices. Frequency and percentage analysis were used to describe the socioeconomic characteristics, tunnel structures, irrigation methods, marketing channel and income categories. Results were presented using tables, figures, and graphical representations.

The study mainly used descriptive analysis because the objectives was simply to assess the current status, production practices, income patterns, and perceived livelihood contribution of tunnel based vegetable farming among surveyed households.

3 Results and Analysis

3.1 Socio-demographic information of the respondents

The socio-demographic information of the respondents is presented in (Table 1). Among the 100 respondents, 68% were male and 32% were female farmers. The majority of the respondents (40%) belonged to active age group of 30-50 years followed by those between 50-70 years (30%), 20-30 years (20%), and above 70 years (10%).

Regarding educational status, most respondents had basic education. About 34% had education below the School Leaving Certificate (SLC) level, 19% had completed higher secondary education, 7% had a university degree, while 22% were illiterate.

In terms of occupation, a significant 60% of the population were engaged in farming activities as primary occupation while a relatively smaller percentage were engaged in wage work, businesses, and services, at 13%, 10%, and 9%, respectively. In terms of land allocation for tunnel cultivation, 40% of farmers cultivated vegetables on small to medium-sized plots (0.25-0.50 ha), while 37% cultivated on less than 0.25 ha and 23% cultivated on more than 0.50 ha. These findings indicate that the tunnel vegetable farming in the study area is mainly practiced by small and medium scale farming households.

3.2 Plastic tunnel structures

3.2.1 Types of tunnel used by the respondents

Farmers used different types of plastic tunnels based on their farm size, investment capacity and crop to be planted. Among the respondents, 84% used medium sized tunnel with a height of 2-2.5 m, while 10% used high tunnel (4-5 m) and 6% used low tunnels (up to 1 m) (Figure 2).

The most common structure respondents used were medium tunnels as they are suitable for crops like tomato and cucumber. Protected structures such as walk-in tunnels are common for cultivating commercial vegetables as they provide a controlled environment and allow efficient crop management (FAO, 2013).

3.2.2 Grams per Square Meter (GSM) of plastic used by the respondents

The majority i.e. 60% of the farmers used 90 GSM plastic sheets, followed by 120 GSM (25%), 200 GSM (7%), and 8% of the other farmers used others GSM (50 GSM, 70 GSM, 150 GSM) and microns plastic (100 micron, 200 micron) (Figure 3).

The thickness of plastic is important factor in durability of tunnel especially in areas exposed to rain, strong wind and hailstorm. Plastic materials ranging from 70-120 GSM are commonly used for protected structures in Nepal (Bhusal et al., 2022).

3.2.3 Size of the plastic tunnel used by the respondents

Different tunnel sizes were observed among farmers. The most common tunnel size was 6*12 m, adopted by 35% of respondents. Other tunnel sizes included 6*18 m (20%), 6*10 m (15%), 6*15 m (12%), and other sizes (18%) include 12*15 m, 15*18 m, 18*24 m of plastic tunnels (Figure 4).

3.3 Vegetable production practices

3.3.1 Major vegetables grown by respondents

Tomato was the dominant vegetable cultivated under tunnels, grown by 70% of respondents. Beside tomato, other vegetables grown in the field were cauliflower, cabbage, leafy greens, cucumber, others (peas, beans, chilli, eggplants) which holds 8%, 4%, 6%, 10%, 2% respectively. The dominance of tomato shows its commercial importance and suitability for protected cultivation. According to MoALD (2024), tomato is among the major commercial vegetable crops cultivated in Nepal.

The most recent district level statistics (2022/23) indicate that Nuwakot has approximately 3049 ha, 39741Mt and 13034 kg/ha of total area, production, and productivity of vegetables respectively and the major vegetables grown in Nuwakot district are radish, cabbage, cauliflower, pumpkin, broad leaf mustard, cucumber, peas etc (Pokhrel et al., 2022).

3.3.2 Major varieties of vegetable crops grown for commercial farming

The major varieties of tomato were Sirjana and Sarbashrestha. They were the highest yielding varieties as per the farmers with a maximum reported yield of around 120 t/ha for Sirjana, and around 70 t/ha for Sarbashrestha (Table 2). White Top was most common variety of cauliflower. The variety of cabbage planted was Green Coronet, while Bhaktapur Local was the major variety of cucumber.

3.3.3 Types of seed used by the respondents

The majority of the respondent 60% people used hybrid seeds, (such as Sirjana and Sarbashrestha, for tomato, White Top, Snow Grace for cauliflower, Green Coronet, Futoski F1, for cabbage and Madhu F1, for cucumber). 10% of the respondents used local seeds (such as Kathmandu Local for cauliflower, and Bhaktapur Local for cucumber). While 18% used both local and hybrid seeds, and 12% of them used improved seeds (such as Snowball 16 and Khumal Jyapu for cauliflower, Wonder Ball for cabbage). They received those seeds from agro vets, agro farm, retail shop and neighbours.

3.3.4 Irrigation system and mulching practices

From the study area, it was found that, the majority of the respondents i.e. 55% of them used drip irrigation system and 22% of the respondents used furrow irrigation system by channel for irrigation. 16% of the respondents used sprinkler irrigation and 7% of them used flooding system by pipe line for irrigation. Farmers flood their land through pipelines which supply the irrigation water from river, pond.

Mulching was practiced by 70% of farmers, while the remaining 30% said they didn't (Figure 5; Figure 6). Straw, hay, tree leaves were some of the common materials used as organic mulch, while plastic mulch was a common material for non-organic mulching.

Drip irrigation and mulching are common in protected vegetable cultivation because they maintain soil growth, controls weed growth and improve water use efficiency (Parte et al., 2022).

3.3.5 Nutrients sources

The majority of the farmers i.e. 58% used FYM and chemical fertilizer such as Urea, Diammonium Phosphate (DAP), Muriate of Potash (MOP) as a nutrient source for vegetable farming, 18% of the respondent used FYM in integration with poultry manure and chemical fertilizer, 16% of the respondent used FYM with goat manure and chemical fertilizer as a nutrient source for vegetable farming and 8% of the respondent used organic manure only.  According to Dahal and Manandhar (2021), farmers commonly combine FYM and poultry manure with chemical fertilizers to enhance crop productivity. However, declining availability of FYM due to reduced livestock rearing has increased farmers' reliance on chemical inputs to maintain soil fertility and high yields.

3.4 Marketing of vegetables

3.4.1 Means of vegetable product selling

The marketing of vegetables involves different actors and paths based on farmer’s market access, production volume, and market connections. The farmers in the survey area apply both direct and indirect methods to market their products. Majority of farmers relied on middlemen because of the convenience of collection, transportation support, and better access to larger markets.

Of the respondents, 55% of them sold their vegetable product through middlemen, making it the most common marketing method. 30% of the vegetable products were sold through co-operatives. And the remaining 15% of the vegetable products were sold by themselves to local markets or to direct consumers. The results show that while certain farmers access markets directly, numerous farmers relies on third person to sell their products.

3.4.2 Marketing channel

The marketing channel involved multiple stakeholders including farmers, cooperatives, traders, wholesalers, and consumers. The diversity provided farmers with various options for selling their products based on their production capacity and market access. Some farmers sold their products directly to the local markets and consumers, while others marketed their vegetables through cooperatives, which is then supplied to wholesalers and urban markets like Kathmandu. A considerable number of farmers also depend on middlemen, who collected vegetables from farms and supplied them to wholesalers and urban consumers. In some cases, farmers sold their produced to contract buyers or companies. These channels indicate that vegetable marketing in the study area includes both direct and intermediary based systems, with cooperatives and middleman playing important roles in connecting rural producers with urban markets.

The following mentioned are the four marketing channels they used:

(1) Direct marketing channel

Farmers → Local Markets → Consumers

Some farmers sold their vegetables directly in nearby local markets. This helped farmers to directly communicate with consumers and retain control over the selling process.

(2) Cooperative-based marketing channel

Farmers → Cooperatives → Wholesalers → Urban Markets (Kathmandu) → Consumers

Through the cooperatives, farmers collectively marketed their produced and accessed larger markets. Cooperatives acted as a connecting bridge between producers and wholesalers, and helped farmers in collecting and transportation of fresh produced.

(3) Middlemen based marketing channel

Farmers → Middlemen → Wholesalers → Urban Markets → Consumers

This was the most common way of marketing in the study area. Middlemen collected vegetables from farmers and supplied them to wholesalers and urban markets.

(4) Contract based marketing channel

Farmers → Contract Buyers/Companies → Consumers

Farmers occasionally sold vegetables through contract buyers or companies where buyers directly collected produced from farms based on prior agreements.

3.5 Annual income by vegetable farming under plastic tunnel

The annual reported income from protected vegetable farming varied among farmers. About 38% of farmers reported earnings of more than NRs. 3 lakhs annually, 24% had an annual income between 2-3 lakhs, 21% earned NRs. 1-2 lakhs, and 17% earned less than NRs. 1 lakh (Figure 7). The findings indicate that tunnel vegetable farming has become an important source of cash income for farmers of Meghang Rural Municipality.

Finding of the study was in coincides with Bhandari and Paudel (2021), who reported that the lowest proportion of farmers earned less than one lakh annually from vegetable farming while assessing farmers’ income from vegetable production. The study of vegetable farmer’s livelihood in Kathmandu valley by Rai et al. (2019) also found the minimum earning of the vegetable farming ranging from NRs. 50,000 to 500,000.

3.6 Income expenditure by respondents

The income from the farming was wisely utilized in different aspect of life. 15% of the earnings was allocated towards food stuffs (Figure 8). Likewise, a significant portion i.e. 21% of the income was dedicated to education, while 14% was used for healthcare purposes. 8% of earning was used in clothing, 23% was used as savings and the remaining 19% was used in other expenses such as buying agriculture inputs, travel and entertainment.

According to Bhandari and Paudel (2021) majority of farmers spend their revenue on necessities like food, clothing, and school supplies, as typical areas of spending. As they made more money, they either saved it or used it for other purposes, such as buying farmland, renovating homes, constructing restrooms, and other lavish items.

3.7 Reasons for practicing tunnel farming and challenges faced by respondents

Farmers in the research area are encouraged to adopt tunnel cultivation because vegetable produced under tunnel gives higher yield, better quality, off-season prices, better climate adaptability, and better disaster protection compared to open field. The cool temperate climate of the elevated area, where low temperatures and weather fluctuations frequently limit open field vegetable cultivation, the implementation of this technology provides farmers with safer environment for their vegetables. Plastic tunnels provides protective microclimate that enables more stable and reliable production compared to open field conditions. The protective role of tunnels against unfavourable weather conditions like intense rainfall, hailstorm, high winds and frost motivates farmers to adopt this system. This lowers the chance of crop damage and production loss. Moreover, tunnel farming enables off-season vegetable cultivation which gives farmers access to market when supply from open field is limited. This seasonal benefit leads to increase market prices, as vegetables grown in tunnels are typically of superior quality and accessible during times of shortage. Thus, the integration of favourable climatic conditions, enhanced crop protection and off season cultivation with superior quality products leads to more profitable and resilient production system compared to open cultivation in the study area.

Although plastic tunnel vegetable cultivation has income increasing potential, it is still constrained by factors such as capital, markets, technology, and agricultural inputs. One of the major constraints is the high initial investment for the construction of tunnel structures including the cost of plastic sheets, pipes, and labour, which restricted farmers from adoption and expansion. Moreover, limited access to the market and dependence on middlemen reduces bargaining power and results in lower farm gate price despite higher production costs. Insufficient training and extension support further limits the production capacity, as farmers have minimal knowledge about modern farming techniques, pest and disease control, and efficient use of resources, all of which are essential for maximizing tunnel productivity. In addition, irregular availability and limited access to quality agricultural inputs like seeds, fertilizers and organic manure create additional production uncertainties and impact yield. These constraints demonstrate that although plastic tunnel farming has considerable income generating potential, its effectiveness is greatly affected by financial access, institutional support and input supply systems.

4 Discussion

4.1 socio-economic factors influencing tunnel vegetable farming

The findings show that the adoption of tunnel technology is highly influenced by socioeconomic characteristics and farmer’s motivation to improve their household earnings. Agriculture being a primary occupation and the dominance of economically active farmers indicates that protected vegetable cultivation has been an important commercial enterprise for people of Meghang. The farmers who are active and have received basic education are more interested in adopting improved technologies because they are better able to understand technical information, participate in extension programs, respond to market opportunities and manage labor intensive work. Likewise, farmers having larger landholdings can allocate more land for commercial vegetable farming and recover higher investment costs associated with tunnel constructions. Although women also participate in farming activities, men have more decision making power, from managing marketing channels to investment decisions, while women are more active in production activities.

These results align with earlier research carried out in Nepal. Kc et al. (2021) found that tunnel technology enhanced production consistency and livelihood prospects for smallholder farmers by reducing climatic constraints. Likewise, Gc and Hall (2020) found that commercialization of smallholder farming is influenced by better access to enhanced production technologies and market prospects. More recently, Subedi et al. (2023) have highlighted that education, extension services, farming experiences and government subsidies significantly influence farmers to adopt protected cultivation, emphasizing that farmers are likely to invest in protected vegetable farming with a solid technical and institutional support.

In general, the findings indicate that the growth and expansion of protected farming relies not only on economic capacity of a farmer but also on their access to extension services, technical education and affordable financial support. Strengthening these support systems might encourage wider adoption of tunnel technology, boost agricultural productivity, and improve the quality of life for smallholder farming households.

4.2 Technical features and agronomic implications of plastic tunnel cultivation

The production practices observed during the survey suggest that farmers are more interested in protected farming with modern and improved cultivation practices including use of hybrid seeds, drip irrigation, mulching practices, and integrated nutrient management. Medium sized tunnel dominated the field as they require lower initial investments compared to high tunnels, and they provide sufficient space for intercultural operations such as training and pruning, skating, irrigation and harvesting. Likewise, the farmers of Meghang have mostly used 90 GSM plastic sheets with 6*12 m tunnel dimension, which is due to their suitability, affordability, durability and ease availability. As farmers seek cost effective structures, for their fragmented lands and to withstand climatic conditions, 90 GSM sheets with 6*12 m dimension tunnels happen to be the best choice for farmers (Lamichhane et al., 2023).

Observing the cultivation practices followed by farmers, it shows that, farmers are widely adopting climate smart practices to improve production. The use of drip irrigation helps provide direct water to the crop root zone which reduces water loss through evaporation and improves water use efficiency, while the use of plastic mulch preserves soil moisture, suppresses weed growth, regulates soil temperature, and reduces nutrient losses. The application of organic manure and chemical fertilizers together improves soil structure and ensure adequate supply of nutrients to plants for continuous crop growth and productivity. Similar benefits of integrating protected cultivation, efficient nutrient and irrigation management for sustainable farming have been reported in Nepal by Paudel et al. (2020) and Lamichhane et al. (2023). The adoption and practice of these new technologies indicates a gradual transition from conventional farming towards modern climate resilient vegetable farming.

However, for long term success and profitable business, farmers should take consideration on both the tunnel structures and proper agronomic practices. With technical and extension support and proper farming practices, the business would be profitable.

4.3 Crop choice, tomato dominance and production risk

Tomato is the dominant crop as seen in the study area, it is likely because of its high market demand, relatively higher economic returns and suitability for protected cultivation. Production under plastic tunnel provides favorable microclimate for off-season periods when open field cultivation is limited and market prices are generally higher. This helps farmers to extend production season, improve quality and access more profitable market.

These findings are consistent with recent studies on protected farming in Nepal. A study done by Subedi et al. (2023) shows that tomato is one of the most profitable crop grown under protected structures because of its high yielding potential and better market price compared to other vegetables. Similarly, Lamichhane et al. (2023) reported that tomato is the identified as the principal crop cultivated under protected structures in Nepal, highlighting its economic importance and its ability to adapt under protected structures. These studies suggest that, farmers prefer to invest in tomato for better financial returns despite high management cost.

However, reliance on one main cash crop may create a risk for farmers. Growing tomatoes in protected structures need regular care. If diseases break out or market price falls when the harvest coincide with many farmers, they will lose money. That is why, growing different crops is important. Crop diversification helps to protect against market volatility, reduces the spread of pests and improves soil health, to create more stable and sustainable protected farming in Nepal.

4.4 contribution of tunnel farming to income and Livelihood improvement

The findings show that vegetable farming under plastic tunnels has become an important source of cash income in households of Meghang Rural Municipality. The income is carefully utilized by farmers in different aspect of daily life such as food, education, healthcare, savings and reinvestment in agriculture outputs. This shows that, tunnel farming not only generates farm income but also strengthened different dimensions of rural Livelihood by improving household income and financial stability.

These findings are consistent with a recent study in Nepal. Kc et al. (2021) reported that the adoption of tunnel technology increased production opportunities, with higher farm income and employment and improved livelihoods. Similarly, Subedi et al. (2023) reported that protected vegetable farming was economically profitable with better financial returns compared to conventional production systems, although profitability depends on production cost, crop choices, market access and farm management. Likewise, Sapkota et al. (2022) reported that farmers viewed protected vegetable farming as a viable method for boosting household income and enhancing economic stability, despite challenges related to input costs and marketing.

However, the current study relies on a cross-sectional survey and descriptive analysis. Thus, the observed results related to livelihood should be seen as association rather than direct causal relationship with tunnel farming.  Further research should be done including longitudinal data, before and after comparison, and economic evaluations to provide stronger evidence of long term contribution of protected farming in livelihood improvement. Finally, having easy access to quality inputs, urban markets, and technical knowledge and extension support will bring more profit to business and a happier livelihood to rural peoples.

4.5 Market dependency, institutional support and policy implications

In Meghang Rural Municipality, farmers relied on middlemen and cooperatives to market their vegetables rather than selling directly to the consumers. The dependency on intermediaries is likely due to limited access to urban markets, inadequate transportation facilities, small production volumes and the convenience of selling products via middlemen. Though middlemen provide an access to market, farmers often have limited bargaining power and receive lower farm gate prices.

These findings are consistent with previous studies in Nepal. Subedi et al. (2023) indicate that while protected vegetable farming is lucrative, insufficient market access, price fluctuations, and weak institutional support remain major constraints to its sustainability. Likewise, Sapkota et al. (2022) identified marketing difficulties, high transportation expenses, and reliance on middlemen as common challenges encountered by protected vegetables growers. Lamichhane et al. (2023) further highlighted that strengthening cooperatives, advancing extension services, and developing market infrastructure are crucial for promoting the adoption and long term success of protected cultivation in Nepal.

The current results indicate that improving market systems is equally important as advancing production technologies. Strengthening farmer cooperatives, encouraging collective marketing, improving market information services, and investing in rural transport and storage facilities could boost farmers bargaining power and improve the profitability of protected vegetable farming. Such institutional backing would contribute to more resilient vegetable value chains and improve the livelihoods of smallholder farming households.

4.6 Study limitations and future research needs

This study provides valuable insights into the role of plastic tunnel vegetable farming in income generation and livelihood improvement among farmers in Meghang Rural Municipality. However, certain constraints should be acknowledged. The study was based on a cross sectional survey of 100 farming households from a single rural municipality, potentially restricting the applicability of the results to the other agro ecological areas in Nepal. Moreover, the analysis relied primarily on farmers self-reported information on production and income, which may be recall bias and seasonal variations. 

Despite these limitations, the study contributes to the increasing evidence about vegetable farming under protection in Nepal by offering household level information from an important vegetable producing area. In line with the suggestions of Lamichhane et al. (2023), future research should evaluate the long term economic, environmental, and climate resilience benefits of protected cultivation across different production systems and agro ecological zones. Comparative analysis of vegetable farming in plastic tunnels versus open fields, along with cost-benefit and value chain analysis would provide stronger evidence to support policy formulation and investment decisions. Such research would enhance understanding of how protected cultivation can contribute to sustainable agricultural commercialization and improved rural livelihoods in Nepal.

5 Conclusion and Prospects

The study assessed the role of plastic tunnel vegetable farming in household income generation and livelihood enhancement among farmers in Meghang Rural Municipality, Nuwakot. Plastic tunnels provide a favourable environment for crops to grow even in off-seasons with better quality and fetch high market prices. The findings suggest that tunnel-based vegetable farming is associated with higher reported income and perceived livelihood improvement among surveyed farmers.

The major findings from the survey are, tomato is the dominant crop grown inside tunnels with Sirjana being the major variety, most of the farmers use medium sized 6*12-dimension plastic tunnels, while 90 GSM plastic sheets are commonly in use. Most farmers practice drip irrigation and mulching to control weeds and maintain soil health. The products are mostly sold via middlemen or cooperatives, with a reported annual income of < 1 lakh to > 3 lakh depending on scale of farming. The income contributed to household expenditure such as food, education, healthcare and agricultural inputs, and savings. Overall, Plastic tunnels helped farmers overcome seasonal production limitations, produce them during times when open field cultivation is quite challenging and continuing the supply of vegetables in off-seasons to fetch higher market prices.

However, farming in Meghang Rural Municipality is affected by several challenges. Firstly, farmers expressed significant concerns regarding high initial cost for tunnel constructions which limits smallholder’s ability to expand production. Secondly, access to quality inputs like seeds, fertilizers, organic manure, and other inputs remains unstable. Moreover, insufficient technical trainings and extension services affect pest and disease management and resource use efficiency. In addition, the lack of organized markets leads many farmers to rely on middlemen, weakening their bargaining power. Due to these obstacles in farming, smallholder farmers may not fully benefit from protected cultivation.

The future progress of tunnel based vegetable farming in the study area requires strengthening collaboration among local governments, cooperatives, financial institution, agriculture extension departments, and farmers to establish more stable mechanism for input supply, technical training, low-interest loans, and market linkages. Cooperative marketing, product grading and packaging, collective transportation, and connections with urban markets should also be emphasized to reduce dependence on middlemen and improve farmers’ bargaining power.

Further studies should include larger sample sizes, cost benefit analysis, net income calculations, input-output ratios, and comparative studies of tunnel versus open field farming systems. This would help address the limitations of the present study which is based only on descriptive cross-sectional data and would also enhance the academic rigor of the paper.

Author’s contributions

Aayushma Poudel conceptualized and designed the study, led the field work, performed the data analysis and prepared the manuscript. Krish Rauniyar helped in editing, data validation and manuscript revision. Chandani Begam and Asmita Oli assisted in field work, data collection and analysis. Bishnu Prasad Bhattarai supervised the data collection and contributed to data analysis and interpretation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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