1 Introduction

Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) is one of the most valuable horticultural crops in the world, and is widely favored for its unique flavor, rich nutrition and outstanding economic value. As the demand for high-quality strawberries continues to rise throughout the year, planting systems and environmental control strategies are also constantly innovating. ​

The worldwide strawberry sector is undergoing a significant shift from focusing solely on yield to equally valuing both quality and productivity. Advances in breeding methods, improvements in cultivation practices, and the growing adoption of climate-controlled farming have all contributed to robust development in strawberry production. Growing techniques have evolved beyond conventional outdoor farming to incorporate various smart greenhouse setups, strengthening the industry's resilience while overcoming natural weather and geographical constraints. Rising consumer expectations for premium, distinctive-flavored strawberries are fueling innovation in both research and farming applications. Currently, parallel progress in genetic enhancement and precision growing techniques has endowed strawberries with wide environmental tolerance and strong market competitiveness, reinforcing their strategic importance and economic worth in contemporary agriculture (Mezzetti et al., 2018; Hernández-Martínez et al., 2023; Kouloumprouka Zacharaki et al., 2024).

Faced with the structural demand changes brought about by consumption upgrades, consumers are increasingly eager for sustainable, localized, high-quality fresh fruits throughout the year, which in turn puts forward more stringent requirements on the production side. At present, producers need to deal with multiple challenges, including precise control of light, temperature and humidity, and build intensive pest and disease control mechanisms and efficient water and fertilizer utilization models. To meet the above needs, modern planting facilities are constantly emerging, including fully functional smart greenhouses, high-coverage facility arch sheds, and flexible soilless cultivation systems. However, these technical means still face certain bottlenecks in the application process, such as high energy consumption, excessive environmental metabolic load, and high requirements for temperature control stability (Lu et al., 2023; Mousavi et al., 2023; De Oliveira Bernardo et al., 2024; Kouloumprouka Zacharaki et al., 2024).

In the 1980s, strawberries were introduced from Japan to Zhejiang for cultivation and gradually became one of the most representative high-efficiency specialty industries in the province. Currently, Zhejiang has emerged as a major production base for facility-grown strawberries nationwide, with an annual planting area of 6,000 hectares, an output of 120,000 tons, and a value exceeding 2.8 billion yuan. Two key production areas have initially formed: Hangzhou and Ningbo, with Jinhua City standing out as the largest in the province and among the top in China, earning the title of "China's Strawberry Hometown". From December to February of each year, strawberries enter a concentrated market period, leading to significant price drops and partial sales stagnation in some regions, resulting in unstable planting benefits. To address this, Zhejiang has adopted measures such as planting early, mid, and late-season varieties to extend the strawberry supply period and balance market availability; employing practical techniques like trellis-based three-dimensional cultivation, soilless cultivation at the grassroots level, and integrated water and fertilizer management; and selecting a mix of red, pink, and white strawberry varieties to diversify fruit types and enhance appeal (Figure 1). These efforts aim to achieve year-round strawberry cultivation and improve planting economic efficiency.

Figure 1 Strawberry Base of Jinhua Yudi Family Farm Co., Ltd. (Photoed by Guojia Ni )

This study aims to systematically sort out and evaluate the environmental control technology paths required to achieve high-quality year-round supply of strawberries, and conduct in-depth discussions on the actual performance of greenhouse structural engineering design, soilless substrate performance optimization, automation equipment integration, and sensor monitoring digital technology. At the same time, we will also focus on the ability of these technologies to achieve a balance between yield, quality and sustainable development goals, strive to provide a theoretical basis for the iteration of related technologies, and provide a feasible reference for the strawberry industry to achieve efficient, environmentally friendly and sustainable development.

2 Physiological Basis and Environmental Requirements for Year-round Cultivation of Strawberries​

2.1 Characteristics of vegetative and reproductive growth of strawberries​

The root system of strawberry plants is shallowly distributed, and the typical fibrous root system responds quickly to small changes in the rhizosphere environment and the physical and chemical properties of the substrate. Although this type of root structure is conducive to water and fertilizer absorption, it also means that it is more vulnerable to high-frequency environmental disturbances. Strawberries show a significant ability to switch between stages during their life cycle, and have a flexible physiological mechanism for regulation between vegetative growth and reproductive development. Although this switch gives the plant a strong adaptability potential, its sensitivity to fluctuations in external factors also increases. Among all growth regulatory factors, the combination of light and temperature plays a leading role: high temperature accompanied by long day conditions promotes plant vegetative growth and enhances biomass accumulation; while low temperature and short day conditions effectively trigger flower bud differentiation and promote the development of reproductive organs (Koskela and Hytönen, 2018; Rivero et al., 2022).

Special focus should be given to controlling root zone temperature. Research indicates that keeping roots slightly cool helps flower development while boosting overall plant growth and improving adaptation to environmental shifts (Sakamoto et al., 2016). During unfavorable weather, proper watering and shade can effectively minimize stress and maintain steady plant development (Cordoba-Novoa et al., 2022).

The transition from vegetative growth to reproductive growth in strawberries is strictly regulated by environmental factors. Short days and cool temperatures usually induce flower bud differentiation, while long days and high temperatures are more conducive to the germination of vegetative runners (Koskela and Hytönen, 2018). The photoperiod after flowering also affects fruit development and quality: short days may inhibit flower bud differentiation and fruit development, resulting in deformed fruits; long days help plants enhance photosynthesis and accumulate more nutrients, thereby improving fruit quality (Figure 2) (Ren et al., 2024). The physiological processes behind these growth transitions are also affected by both genetic factors and hormonal regulation - this also ensures the feasibility of year-round production through environmental regulation (Chen et al., 2023). ​

Figure 2 Effects of different photoperiod treatments on the first inflorescence of strawberry fruit appearance (Adopted from Ren et al., 2024)

2.2 Variety requirements and selection criteria for year-round production​

Modern strawberry cultivars are mainly divided into two types: photoperiod-insensitive (day-neutral) varieties and short-day varieties. Day-neutral varieties can achieve year-round continuous production under environmentally controlled conditions because their flowering and fruiting are not restricted by a specific photoperiod (Rivero et al., 2022). In contrast, the reproductive development of short-day varieties strictly depends on specific light and temperature conditions. If the environment is not properly regulated, it will be difficult to achieve off-season cultivation (Koskela and Hytönen, 2018).

For year-round production, choosing suitable varieties is crucial, considering their light requirements, consistent yields, and market quality. Day-neutral types adapt well to various conditions with stable outputs, whereas short-day varieties, though producing superior fruit in ideal settings, struggle with environmental changes (Koskela and Hytönen, 2018; Rivero et al., 2022). Different cultivars also react distinctly to control methods like LED lights, root cooling, and humidity adjustments, directly impacting both yield and fruit quality in controlled environments (Sakamoto et al., 2016; Ren et al., 2024).

3 Technical Approaches to Regulating Environmental Factors in Strawberry Cultivation

3.1 Temperature control technology

Temperature plays a central role in strawberry development, directly influencing plant metabolism, final yields, and fruit quality. Research confirms most strawberry varieties grow best between 18 °C-25 °C. Certain high-performing types achieve optimal results with daytime temperatures of 20.5 °C-27.4 °C combined with slightly cooler nights (Tang et al., 2020; Sugiyanto and Kasih, 2024). Keeping temperatures within these ranges supports healthy plant functions, encourages flowering, and enhances fruit appearance. Proper temperature management helps overcome seasonal limitations while balancing quality and productivity.

In cold periods, a variety of heating systems are required to maintain the optimal temperature: hot water pipes and air furnaces are traditional ways to heat greenhouses, while geothermal and air source heat pumps are energy-saving alternatives. Using water heated by heat pumps (air or geothermal) to heat the substrate can keep the root zone temperature stable at around 18.4 °C throughout the year, increasing yield by 21% to 36% compared to the control group. Geothermal systems can especially reduce electricity consumption and enhance production sustainability (Jo and Shin, 2022; Moritani et al., 2023). In winter cultivation, using positive temperature coefficient films to heat the root zone can accelerate flower bud germination, increase fruit yield and improve quality (Jo and Shin, 2022). ​

In warm climates or when solar radiation is strong, efficient cooling is also critical: natural ventilation and forced exhaust fans are commonly used to exhaust hot air to maintain a suitable temperature; evaporative cooling systems can further reduce greenhouse temperatures, especially in areas with higher ambient temperatures (Yin et al., 2023; Lei, 2024). Smart greenhouse systems integrate sensors and automatic control functions to dynamically adjust cooling (and heating) measures based on real-time temperature data to achieve dual optimization of plant growth and resource utilization (Mubarakah et al., 2023 ; Tarigan, 2023).

3.2 Light and photoperiod management​

When natural sunlight is inadequate, artificial lighting becomes essential for quality strawberry production. LED systems now outperform traditional lights due to their adjustable spectra, energy savings, and durability, making them ideal for modern growing facilities. Evidence shows using LED lights at 132~235 μmol/m²/s intensity for 16 hours daily can boost yields over 30% while improving water efficiency and fruit traits (Hidaka et al., 2015; Park et al., 2023; Kaur et al., 2024).

Compared with traditional high-intensity discharge lamps (HID), LED systems have obvious advantages in light quality control and energy saving and consumption reduction (Hidaka et al., 2015; Guiamba et al., 2022; Tang et al., 2023). In addition, when supplementary lighting measures are combined with carbon dioxide concentration management, the yield of strawberries can be increased by more than 50%, and the soluble solids content of the fruit is also increased simultaneously, showing the significance of the synergistic effect (Qiu et al., 2023).

Light environment optimization technology also includes shading regulation and spectrum management. The use of new shading materials such as OPV components can accurately adjust the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), which can ensure normal fruit development and promote the accumulation of soluble solids within the light intensity range of 387-437 μmol/m²/s (Tang et al., 2020). Specific light quality ratios have a significant regulatory effect on the growth and development of strawberries: a 7:3 ratio of red to blue light can promote plant morphology and yield formation; while blue light and far-red light affect flowering time and stolonogenesis by regulating the expression of photosensitive pigment-related genes (Díaz-Galián et al., 2020; Guiamba et al., 2022; Prisca et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2024). Spectral regulation can also activate secondary metabolic pathways and significantly increase the content of functional components and antioxidant activity in fruits (Warner et al., 2021).​

3.3 Humidity and CO₂ regulation​

Maintaining a relative humidity range of 60%-80% is most beneficial to the growth and development of strawberries. This range can not only ensure normal transpiration, but also effectively reduce the risk of disease. Greenhouse cultivation practice shows that 65%-75% relative humidity is the best control range: too high humidity will inhibit transpiration and assimilate transport, and too low humidity will lead to water stress, both of which are not conducive to plant growth and fruit quality improvement (Miyoshi et al., 2023; Kaur et al., 2024).

Carbon dioxide application technology has shown significant advantages in improving the photosynthetic efficiency of strawberries, and has become an important means of high and stable yields in greenhouse cultivation. Relevant studies have shown that by artificially increasing the carbon dioxide concentration in the greenhouse, the strawberry yield can be increased by more than 23%, and when this technology is used in conjunction with supplementary lighting measures, not only the yield benefits, but also the fruit sugar content and overall sensory quality are improved simultaneously (Qiu et al., 2023). Especially in autumn and winter, limited by natural light conditions, carbon dioxide regulation technology shows stronger application potential in off-season production, providing a feasible solution for the stable supply of high-quality strawberries.

4 Strawberry Cultivation Substrate and PrecisionNutrient Management

4.1 Substrate type selection and optimization technology

Soilless strawberry growing is key in modern farming, using water-based and media-based methods. These approaches prevent soil diseases while improving fruit quality and yields (Rathod et al., 2021; Hutchinson et al., 2025). Tests show mixing worm compost with coconut fiber (0.5:0.1 ratio) creates better water/nutrient conditions for plant growth (Tang et al., 2024). Different media serve different purposes - rockwool helps fruiting while coconut fiber supports leaf growth (An et al., 2025). Container size matters too - 830 cm³ coconut fiber pots work well for 6-month crops (Lee et al., 2023). Adding organic materials like manure boosts soil life and fruit flavor (Bai et al., 2025).

4.2 Precision fertilization and nutrient regulation technology

IoT-based watering systems now automate fertilizer and water delivery. Sensor systems cut chemical use by 38% and water by 26% (Bonelli et al., 2024; Hutchinson et al., 2025). Changing nutrient mixes during growth stages, especially adjusting N/K and K/Ca ratios, improves plant health and fruit quality (Yu et al., 2023). Combining root and leaf feeding with balanced NPK reduces waste while nourishing plants (Kumar et al., 2025).

4.3 Comprehensive optimization strategy for substrate and nutrient management

Combining good media with smart watering gives best results. Water-holding mixes (like worm compost-coconut blends) with sensor systems grow stronger plants (Bonelli et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2024; Hutchinson et al., 2025). Mixing organic (compost) and mineral fertilizers maintains both yields and soil health (Yadav et al., 2010; Barooah and Datta, 2020; Prasad et al., 2022; Bai et al., 2025). For water systems, keeping pH stable with buffers like MES helps roots take up nutrients (Yafuso and Boldt, 2024).

5 Facility Design and Year-round Control Model​

5.1 Comparison of greenhouses, multi-span greenhouses, and smart cultivation systems​

Modern greenhouse structures have become an important basic platform for promoting year-round strawberry cultivation due to their excellent environmental regulation performance. With the support of temperature control systems and artificial light sources, single greenhouses can still maintain stable yields in areas with drastic climate fluctuations, showing high adaptability and management flexibility. Multi-span greenhouses have more advantages in spatial organization, airflow balance and expansion capabilities. At the same time, the operating cost per unit area is relatively low, which is more suitable for large-scale deployment (Miyoshi et al., 2013; Wai et al., 2022; Thanthong et al., 2024). However, its regulation efficiency in dealing with extreme meteorological conditions is still limited by the insulation structure and the degree of automation integration, and the system resilience has certain limitations (Hernández-Martínez et al., 2023).

Intelligent cultivation systems (such as plant factories) represent the forefront of facility agriculture development. Such systems rely on IoT sensor networks and efficient automatic control platforms to achieve real-time feedback and precise regulation of light intensity, temperature and humidity, water supply and gas environment. In specific application scenarios such as urban agriculture and high-value crop cultivation, its high-density and high-efficiency advantages are particularly prominent. However, the high initial construction investment and complex operation and maintenance requirements are still the key issues that need to be weighed during the promotion and application process (Samaranayake et al., 2022; Wai et al., 2022; Mubarakah et al., 2023; De Oliveira Bernardo et al., 2024).

The automated environmental management platform is regarded as the nerve center of modern facility planting. The monitoring system composed of a distributed sensor network continuously collects multidimensional parameters such as temperature, humidity, light, and substrate moisture content, and realizes model-driven dynamic regulation through a cloud computing platform. The prediction system built with machine learning algorithms such as random forests and support vector regression can effectively avoid low temperature stress and improve photosynthesis efficiency and energy utilization (Chen et al., 2022; Samaranayake et al., 2022; Mubarakah et al., 2023; De Oliveira Bernardo et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2025). Comprehensive practice shows that the system has significant advantages in maintaining fruit consistency and can reduce labor management costs by more than 30%.

5.2 Seasonal crop rotation and soil fatigue mitigation technology​

Innovative environmental control technology provides solutions for off-season production. Through the combined application of shading system and phase change energy storage device, greenhouse facilities can maintain a suitable cultivation temperature of 18 °C-25 °C in the high temperature season, successfully realizing the commercial cultivation of summer strawberries (Miyoshi et al., 2013; Thanthong et al., 2024). This technical system can not only stabilize the yield level, but also show good adaptability in ensuring fruit quality.

Multi-dimensional comprehensive management strategies are required for the prevention and control of continuous cropping obstacles. Physical disinfection technology (steam sterilization, solar disinfection) can effectively reduce the base number of soil pathogens; scientific rotation systems and intercropping of non-host crops can block the transmission chain of pests and diseases (Kang et al., 2024); regular disinfection of facilities can prevent the cross-transmission of pathogenic microorganisms (Hernández-Martínez et al., 2023; Kang et al., 2024). Deeply integrate traditional prevention and control methods with modern facility systems to provide technical support for the sustainable development of the strawberry industry.

6 Comprehensive Case Study on Environmental Control for High-quality Strawberry Cultivation Throughout the Year

6.1 Representative case study on regional year-round environmental control

In Japan and some temperate regions of Europe, large greenhouses are equipped with advanced environmental control systems - covering temperature, light, and carbon dioxide regulation - to achieve stable and high yields of strawberries throughout the year. Taking Japan's industrial greenhouses as an example, it uses a moving bed system and comprehensive environmental control methods (light supplementation, carbon dioxide enrichment, and precise temperature control), and the yield is doubled compared with traditional systems. These facilities improve yield and fruit quality by optimizing planting density and environmental parameters, especially when June-bearing varieties are selected and customized light supplementation solutions are used (Hidaka et al., 2016). China's solar greenhouses use opaque photovoltaic (OPV) panels to shade the sun, combined with solar heating, to maintain the temperature at 20.5 °C-27.4 °C and the light intensity (PAR) at 387~437 μmol/m²/s, which increases the yield by 1.2 times compared with the unshaded control group, and the soluble solids content of the fruit is also higher (Tang et al., 2020).

The core of environmental control in tropical and subtropical regions is to alleviate the problems of overheating and humidity. Covering technology (especially black plastic mulch) and shade nets have been proven to regulate soil temperature and humidity - in the humid tropical regions of India, such measures can increase fruit yield by 68% and improve the content of phytochemicals (Misra, 2023). The Saudi Arabian experimental area adopts a 20 m × 8 m layout to test the effects of different colored shade nets on plant growth (Figure 3). In greenhouses, colored shade nets (e.g., beige or green) can optimize light quality and temperature, with beige shade nets achieving optimal yields and improving plant physiological characteristics (Alhelal et al., 2024). These improvements allow strawberry to achieve off-season and year-round production under otherwise limited climatic conditions.

Figure 3 The distribution of the colored shading nets blocks, blocks with black shading nets (B), blocks with green shading nets (G), blocks with beige shading nets (Y), and the control blocks (C) (Adopted from Alhelal et al., 2024) Image caption: Each shading net covered three blocks (replication) with dimensions of 5 m × 1.5 m × 3.5 m (Adopted from Alhelal et al., 2024)

6.2 Evaluation of the impact of environmental control on strawberry yield and quality

The precise environmental control technology system (covering light environment regulation, temperature and humidity management, and intelligent water and fertilizer system) has a continuous promoting effect on the formation of strawberry yield and quality improvement. LED artificial lighting technology can not only improve the yield level, but also significantly increase the content of anthocyanins, polyphenols and antioxidant activity in fruits, thereby enhancing the functional nutritional quality of strawberries (Warner et al., 2021; Pérez-Romero et al., 2024). The sensor irrigation system under hydroponic conditions dynamically optimizes the supply of water and fertilizer to achieve a synergistic improvement in resource utilization efficiency and yield (Hutchinson et al., 2025). In the organic production system, although the application of biostimulants and compost tea varies from year to year and from variety to variety, it can generally improve the yield composition and the accumulation of fruit flavor substances (Pérgola et al., 2023; Kilic, 2024; Nakielska et al., 2024; Ciriello et al., 2025).

7 Integration of Environmentally Sustainable Technologies

7.1 Potential of green energy systems in year-round strawberry cultivation

The use of renewable energy such as solar energy has become a key path to reduce the environmental load of facility strawberry production. The results of life cycle analysis show that photovoltaic (PV) systems and solar thermal-photovoltaic (PV/T) systems have shown significant advantages in energy efficiency and carbon emission reduction. Among them, photovoltaic technology is particularly outstanding, which can reduce cumulative energy consumption by 50%, and its environmental impact index is reduced by 16% and 6% respectively compared with traditional energy modes (Hosseini-Fashami et al., 2019). This type of energy configuration not only provides stable and clean power support, but also effectively alleviates the potential pressure caused by greenhouse system operation on the ecosystem. It has been verified in facility agriculture scenarios in many places (Romero-Gámez and Suárez-Rey, 2020).

7.2 Eco-friendly integrated pest and disease control system

Developing effective yet natural pest control methods is crucial for sustainable strawberry farming. Using helpful bacteria (like Bacillus) along with organic boosters such as humic acid can raise strawberry production by up to 79% while fighting fungal infections (Nakielska et al., 2024; Ranasingha et al., 2024). The effectiveness depends on plant types and local conditions, requiring customized solutions. Specially made compost tea both strengthens plants and blocks diseases, working especially well in organic systems that protect nature while growing crops (Pérgola et al., 2023). Unlike chemical sprays, these natural methods help keep soil microbes healthy and create better farming conditions long-term.

7.3 Innovative application of smart agricultural management platform

New digital tools are changing how strawberries get grown. Connected sensors and smart computers work together to automatically adjust temperature, moisture, light and air conditions for ideal growing. In Ecuador, the AgroTec 4.0 system increased harvests by 15% using 20% less water while growing better berries (Abdo-Peralta et al., 2024). Remote monitoring systems also cut labor needs by over 30% while making production more reliable (Mubarakah et al., 2023; De Oliveira Bernardo et al., 2024; Jyoti et al., 2025).

8 Concluding Remarks

Growing top-quality strawberries year-round depends on carefully managing light, warmth, water and food for the plants. Modern indoor farms - like smart greenhouses, tunnel houses and vertical farms - use special equipment to control growing conditions. These systems combine climate control, special grow lights and soil-free methods to produce steady harvests all year. Even in tight city spaces, growing strawberries in water or stacked setups with adjustable lighting works well for continuous production.

While these indoor methods have improved greatly, some big problems remain. Crazy weather from climate change, tougher bugs and diseases, and the need to save resources are pushing farmers toward smarter systems. Networks of sensors connected to cloud computers help monitor and adjust growing conditions perfectly. Matching farm setups to local weather, plant types and what customers want makes the whole system work better and earn more money.

Looking ahead, work should focus on better smart tools and systems that handle weather changes well. Important areas include: using clean power, creating self-adjusting control systems, and adding natural pest control methods. Building earth-friendly farms that use resources wisely will help the strawberry business last long while cutting pollution and handling challenges better.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Professor R. Cai continuous support throughout the development of this study.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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