1 Introduction

Agriculture plays a vital role in Nepal’s economy, with a significant portion of the population relying on it for their livelihood. Among the various agricultural products, apple production has emerged as a key sector, particularly in high-altitude districts such as Jumla, where the climatic conditions favor its cultivation. The study of apple farming in Jumla District is essential for understanding the impact of various factors, such as farmer education, agricultural techniques, and varietal diversification, on production. Education among farmers significantly influences their ability to adopt modern agricultural practices, improve orchard management, and increase productivity. Additionally, factors such as the age of apple trees and the diversity of apple varieties play a crucial role in ensuring sustainable apple farming (Joshi et al., 2019). The present study aims to assess how farmers’ educational levels and their agricultural practices influence apple production outcomes in Jumla District. By comparing knowledge levels, tree age, and varietal diversification, this study seeks to provide insights that can contribute to improving apple yield and quality in the region (Sharma and Adhikari, 2021).

Apple production in Nepal has witnessed significant growth over the past few decades, yet it remains constrained by multiple challenges. The total apple cultivation area in Nepal spans approximately 12 501 hectares, with an annual production of around 39 199 metric tons (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, 2021). The primary apple-growing regions in Nepal include Mustang, Jumla, Dolpa, Mugu, and Manang, where the climatic conditions are conducive to temperate fruit cultivation. Despite its potential, apple production faces hurdles such as limited access to improved farming techniques, inadequate post-harvest infrastructure, and poor market linkages (Poudel et al., 2020). The yield per hectare in Nepal remains lower than in other apple-producing countries due to suboptimal orchard management and outdated agricultural practices. Enhancing farmer education and introducing scientific orchard management techniques can play a crucial role in improving productivity (Thapa and Gautam, 2022). Previous studies indicate that farmers with better access to training and education tend to adopt improved irrigation, pruning, pest management, and soil fertility practices, leading to higher yields and better fruit quality (Adhikari et al., 2020; Bhandari et al., 2021). Therefore, it is imperative to evaluate the role of educational levels and agricultural practices in apple farming in order to identify key areas for intervention.

Jumla District, located in the Karnali Province of Nepal, is one of the most significant apple-producing regions in the country. The district has a suitable climate for apple cultivation, with an altitude ranging from 2 300 to 3 000 meters above sea level, which provides the necessary chilling hours for high-quality fruit production (Dahal and Karki, 2018). Apples from Jumla are known for their unique taste and organic nature, as most farmers practice traditional farming with minimal chemical inputs. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (2021), Jumla contributes significantly to Nepal’s total apple production, with an estimated 3,500 hectares under cultivation. However, apple productivity in the region is highly variable due to differences in farmer knowledge, orchard age, and the selection of apple varieties (Shrestha et al., 2020). Older apple orchards tend to have declining productivity, while a lack of varietal diversification limits the market potential and resilience of apple farming in the region. Addressing these challenges requires a thorough assessment of how educational levels and farming practices impact apple production. By conducting this comparative study, policymakers, researchers, and agricultural extension agencies can gain valuable insights into how improved education and better orchard management strategies can enhance apple production in Jumla District.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Site selection and study area

The study was conducted in all 8 local bodies of the Jumla district of Nepal, which is a Himalayan region, with elevations ranging from 915 masl (3 002 feet) to 6 552 masl (21 496 feet) (Figure 1). The total area of this district is 2 531 km². Out of these, apples are cultivated in 4 250 ha of land. The Higher Himalayan Region consists of the Patarasi Himalayan ranges. The major rivers in Jumla are Hima, Tila, and Jawa. Most of the people depend on agriculture for their survival. It is one of the remote and underdeveloped districts of Nepal with a human development index of 0.348, a human poverty index of 56.8, a life expectancy of 50.82, and an average literacy rate of 76.2% out of these males 83.6% and females 69.4% with an overall human development ranking in 70 out of 75 districts in Nepal.

2.2 Sampling size and sample techniques

A simple random sampling technique was employed to collect data from 150 households in the Jumla district, with representation corresponding to the number of apple farmers in different local bodies. Primary data was gathered through surveys conducted in various areas, while secondary data was sourced from various articles and government publications. Both primary and secondary data were coded, entered, and analyzed using MS Excel and SPSS.

2.3 Operational variable

Educational level refers to the highest formal education achieved by apple farmers, classified as illiterate, primary, secondary, or higher education. Agricultural practices encompass orchard management techniques, including pruning, fertilization, irrigation, and pest control. Farmer knowledge is evaluated through survey responses that assess their understanding of improved apple cultivation methods. Tree age is defined by the average age of the apple trees in the orchard and categorized into different age groups. Varietal diversification pertains to the number and types of apple varieties cultivated by each farmer. These variables are used to evaluate both their individual and collective impacts on overall apple production in the Jumla District.

Apple productivity is defined as the yield of apples produced per unit area of land. It serves as a crucial dependent variable for assessing the effectiveness of different educational levels and agricultural practices. Productivity is calculated using the following formula (Dhakal et al., 2016):

Productivity (mt/ha)=Total Apple Production (mt) / Area Under Apple Cultivation (ha) 

This measure helps quantify the efficiency of apple production among farmers and enables comparisons across different groups based on education, practices, and the types of apple varieties used.

3 Results and Analysis

3.1 Effects of farmer gender on apple yield

The average apple yield for male farmers was 26.64 kg per tree, while for female farmers it was slightly lower at 25.50 kg (Table 1). Although the difference is modest, it suggests that male farmers may have slightly better access to agricultural resources or training. Among the surveyed population, 82% were male and 18% were female.

3.2 Education level, yield

Education was a significant determinant of apple productivity. Farmers with primary education had the highest average yield at 27.04 kg, followed by those with higher education (24.25 kg), secondary education (21.83 kg), and illiterate farmers (16.94 kg). Chi-square analysis confirmed a statistically significant difference between primary and illiterate farmers (p<0.001), indicating that basic education may substantially improve productivity (Table 2).

This suggests that primary education might provide essential functional skills and openness to agricultural extension programs, which could explain better orchard management practices among these farmers. Future analysis could further explore whether this advantage is linked to factors like age, farming experience, or training exposure.

3.3 Effects of tree age on yield

A strong positive correlation was observed between tree age and productivity. Apple trees older than 15 years yielded an average of 38.20 kg, compared to 25.80 kg for trees aged 10~15 years and only 10.24 kg for those under 10 years. These differences were statistically significant (p<0.001), confirming that orchard maturity is a key driver of yield (Table 3).

These findings are in line with the biological lifecycle of apple trees and underscore the importance of tree age in yield forecasting and orchard planning.

3.4 Regional variation in apple yield

Significant variation in apple productivity was observed across different municipalities. Sinja had the highest average yield at 35.02 kg, followed by Kanakasundari (30.10 kg) and Guthichaur (28.11 kg). Chandannath, which had the highest farmer representation (22%), reported the lowest yield at 21.23 kg (Table 4).

This variability could be influenced by differences in elevation, microclimate, soil fertility, and access to inputs or extension services, warranting municipality-specific interventions.

3.5 Impact of variety and planting method on yield

High-density planting (HDP) methods had a statistically significant impact on productivity when used with the Gala variety (p<0.001). Other varieties like Red and Royal were grown using traditional methods and were not tested with HDP, limiting comparisons (Table 5).

The results support global trends indicating that HDP improves light interception and resource efficiency, which enhances yields. Further analysis should examine whether HDP adoption correlates with farmer education or access to training.

4 Discussion

4.1 Impact of education on productivity

The results show that farmers with primary education produced significantly higher yields than illiterate farmers, suggesting that even basic literacy equips them with the skills to adopt improved agricultural practices. This supports previous studies indicating that education enhances access to agricultural information and the capacity to adopt innovations such as proper pruning, nutrient management, and pest control (Joshi et al., 2019; Bhandari et al., 2021). Interestingly, secondary and higher education did not show statistically significant differences in yield, suggesting that targeted agricultural training may be more impactful than formal higher education in this context. Similar trends were observed by Gayak et al. (2020) in Mustang District, where practical knowledge and training influenced production outcomes more than academic qualifications.

4.2 Role of tree age in apple yield

Tree age was found to have a profound impact on apple productivity, with trees older than 15 years producing the highest yields. This is consistent with findings by Dhakal et al. (2016), who reported that mature apple trees in Nepal’s hill regions yield more fruit, given appropriate management. However, productivity in older trees can decline if pruning and soil fertility are not maintained, emphasizing the importance of rejuvenation practices. (Bajgain et al. 2024) further highlighted that accurate knowledge of orchard planting ages is vital for predicting yield and making effective orchard management decisions.

4.3 Effects of varietal selection and planting methods

The adoption of modern apple varieties such as Gala, particularly when planted using high-density planting (HDP) techniques, was associated with significantly higher yields. This finding is in line with international research showing that HDP systems using dwarfing rootstocks and spur-type cultivars enhance productivity through improved canopy management and efficient resource utilization (Thakur et al., 2024). Moreover, such systems are suitable for areas like Jumla, where land availability is limited, and can offer farmers quicker returns on investment due to earlier fruiting.

Diversification into varieties such as Gala and Fuji also helps reduce the risks associated with monoculture farming. Studies have noted that varietal diversification improves resilience to climate variability and market fluctuations (Shrestha et al., 2020). This is particularly relevant in Jumla, where traditional varieties dominate and may not perform uniformly across changing microclimatic conditions.

4.4 Geographical variation and environmental influence

Geographic differences across municipalities, especially the high productivity in Sinja and Kanakasundari, suggest that local agro-climatic conditions and management practices vary substantially within Jumla. These differences highlight the need for location-specific extension strategies, soil and climate analysis, and varietal recommendations tailored to each municipality (Dahal and Karki, 2018). Areas with lower productivity, like Chandannath, may benefit from increased technical support and training to close the yield gap.

4.5 Limitations of the study

Despite its valuable insights, this study has several limitations. First, the sample size was limited to 150 farming households, which may not fully capture the diversity of apple farming practices in Jumla. Second, certain variables, such as varietal diversification and HDP adoption were not uniformly distributed across the sample, limiting the generalizability of those specific findings. Third, the analysis relied primarily on descriptive statistics and chi-square tests, without incorporating more advanced statistical models that could examine interaction effects between variables (e.g., between education level and planting method).

Furthermore, the study used cross-sectional data, which does not allow for causal inference or temporal assessment of changes in orchard productivity. These constraints may limit the robustness of some conclusions, especially regarding long-term yield trends and the effectiveness of newer techniques such as HDP in different micro-environments.

4.6 Recommendations for future research

Future studies should aim to overcome these limitations by employing larger and more representative samples across different ecological zones. The adoption of multivariate statistical techniques—such as linear regression, logistic regression, or multilevel modeling—would allow for a more nuanced analysis of how factors such as education, varietal selection, and orchard management interact to influence productivity. Additionally, longitudinal studies tracking changes over time would provide better insights into the effects of interventions such as training, HDP adoption, or varietal shifts.

Further research should also investigate the economic viability of newer practices like HDP in resource-constrained settings. This includes cost-benefit analyses, assessments of market access, and farmer perceptions, which are critical for the widespread adoption of these technologies. Finally, incorporating qualitative approaches such as interviews or focus groups could help uncover behavioral and institutional barriers to technology adoption and inform more tailored extension strategies.

5 Conclusion

This study underscores the key factors influencing apple farming productivity in Jumla District, Nepal, focusing on farmer education, tree age, planting methods, and geographical variation. The results show that primary-educated farmers produce significantly higher apple yields compared to illiterate farmers, highlighting the importance of practical agricultural knowledge over formal education. This points to the need for tailored training programs for illiterate farmers to improve productivity. The analysis of tree age reveals that older trees (>15 years) yield the highest amounts, though variability exists due to factors like management practices and varietal differences, indicating the need for careful tree management across growth stages. The study also demonstrates that high-density planting (HDP) methods significantly enhance yields, particularly for Gala apples, which is especially beneficial in areas with limited land availability. The adoption of modern planting techniques and newer varieties can help mitigate the risks associated with monoculture farming. Additionally, the geographical differences in productivity across regions like Chandannath, Tila, and Tatopani emphasize the importance of considering regional environmental factors, such as soil and climate, when making farming decisions. In conclusion, optimizing apple farming in Jumla requires addressing educational gaps, adopting modern farming methods like HDP, managing trees at different growth stages, and tailoring practices to local regional conditions. By focusing on these factors, apple farming can be made more sustainable, improving yields and farmers’ livelihoods in the region.

Authors' contributions

PD conceived of the study, designed the research framework, and coordinated in the overall work. BS conducted data analysis, performed the statistical interpretation, and contributed to manuscript drafting. SP was responsible for survey design, data collection, and initial data entry. PB participated in the literature review and contributed to the interpretation of results. RS assisted in field coordination, data visualization, and manuscript editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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