1 Introduction

Putuo narcissus (Narcissus tazetta var. chinensis), also known as the Chinese daffodil, is a widely favored ornamental plant in landscape design and interior decoration due to its unique floral shape, fragrant aroma, and profound cultural significance. It is a bulbous flowering plant originally wild on the islands of the Zhoushan Archipelago (Xie et al., 2015). The species is distributed across nearly a hundred islands in Zhoushan, with the largest cultivation area found on Taohuadao. Renowned for its exceptional fragrance, color, form, and charm, Putuo narcissus was officially named in 1981 and designated as the city flower of Zhoushan. As a perennial herbaceous plant, the Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis not only boasts aesthetic value but also symbolizes good fortune and blessings, earning widespread popularity (Hong et al., 2021).

However, its growth and flowering are highly sensitive to environmental conditions, such as changes in light availability and cultivation methods, which can significantly impact its morphological development, photosynthesis, and growth cycle (Li et al., 2013). Due to factors such as a low percentage of large bulbs, low commercial yield, a sharp decline in cultivation area, rising labor costs, a lack of successors in farming despite market demand, and a small market share with insufficient competitiveness, the cultivation area of Putuo Narcissus has been reduced to approximately 200 mu. As a result, production has drastically shrunk, placing the industry in a precarious situation.

In recent years, the rapid development of the horticultural industry and increasing consumer demand for high-quality ornamental plants have heightened the need to optimize the cultivation conditions for Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis. In practice, Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis is commonly cultivated using either hydroponics or soil cultivation, each offering distinct differences in water and nutrient availability as well as growing conditions (Bian and Pan, 2018; Miller et al., 2021).

These differences are closely related to the plant's health and ornamental characteristics. Moreover, light, as a critical environmental factor for plant growth, directly influences photosynthetic efficiency, morphological formation, and flowering quality (Luo et al., 2024). Therefore, investigating the effects of light conditions and cultivation methods on the growth performance of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis is of significant scientific and practical importance.

The growth performance of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis varies under different light conditions (adequate light and insufficient light) and cultivation methods (hydroponics and soil cultivation). Insufficient light can lead to poor growth, while different cultivation methods may affect the plant’s water and nutrient absorption efficiency. The interaction of these factors directly determines the ornamental traits and health of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis (Bian and Pan, 2018; Li et al., 2021). However, research on the combined effects of light and cultivation methods on Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis remains limited, and systematic scientific data are lacking.

Exploring the comprehensive mechanisms by which these key factors affect Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis growth can not only clarify their influence on physiological development but also provide a basis for optimizing cultivation management to enhance its horticultural potential (Li et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015). Identifying an economically efficient cultivation model is crucial for improving the growth quality and market value of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis in modern horticultural production. Understanding the mechanisms of light conditions and cultivation methods on Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis growth will provide valuable guidance for the efficient cultivation of ornamental plants and open new pathways for diversifying the application of landscape plant resources.

This study explores the response mechanisms of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis to hydroponic and soil cultivation methods under different light conditions. It focuses on comparing the effects of adequate and insufficient light on the morphology, physiological traits, and growth quality of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis under varying cultivation methods. It analyzes the interactive effects of light conditions and cultivation methods on the regulatory mechanisms underlying Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis growth performance, providing a scientific basis for optimizing cultivation conditions. The findings offer guidance for improving the cultivation techniques of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis, promoting its broader application in modern landscape design and home gardening, and laying a solid foundation for its sustained promotion as a premium ornamental plant.

2 Results and Analysis

2.1 Growth of hydroponically cultivated Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis under adequate light

Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis in Group A, cultivated hydroponically in an adequately lit office environment, exhibited significant growth advantages. Experimental data show that by January 15, 2025, Group A plants had developed two flower buds, with leaf lengths reaching 15-18 cm. By the morning of January 20, the first flower began to bloom, and flowering continued progressively, with a total of eight flowers blooming by January 25. This demonstrated robust growth and flowering capacity (Figure 1). Overall, Group A plants displayed uniform leaf growth, vibrant green coloration, and a high number of well-developed flower buds.

Figure 1 Growth conditions of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis (Group A) under adequate light (Photographed on January 15 to January 24, 2025)

Adequate light played a critical role in this experiment. Sufficient natural light provided a continuous energy source, enhancing photosynthetic efficiency, promoting leaf elongation, and facilitating flower bud differentiation and development (Dou et al., 2014). Additionally, the daytime temperature of approximately 20 °C created optimal conditions for plant metabolism, accelerating the absorption and utilization of nutrients. These results align with existing literature, confirming the crucial role of light and temperature in photosynthesis and plant development (Li et al., 2013). Furthermore, the hydroponic method used for Group A maintained clean water quality, ensuring efficient oxygen and water absorption by the roots and providing a stable supply of nutrients for healthy plant growth.

2.2 Growth of hydroponically cultivated Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis under low light

Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis in Group B, cultivated hydroponically under insufficient light, exhibited significantly slower growth. From January 15 to January 20, 2025, leaf lengths ranged from only 2 to 8 cm, with uneven growth and some leaves remaining short. By January 24, the leaf length increased slightly, reaching a maximum of 13 cm, and small flower buds began to form but did not fully bloom. Compared to Group A, the leaves of Group B appeared duller in color and exhibited weaker overall growth, indicating the pronounced inhibitory effect of insufficient light on photosynthesis and plant development.

Low light conditions restricted photosynthesis, resulting in insufficient energy production and subsequently impairing leaf growth and flower bud differentiation (Wang et al., 2020). Additionally, the low temperatures in the low-light environment (approximately -1 °C to 5 °C) further suppressed metabolic activity, slowing the growth process. Nevertheless, the hydroponic method provided a stable supply of water and nutrients, enabling Group B Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis to maintain a certain degree of growth, suggesting that cultivation methods can partially mitigate the adverse effects of low light. These findings are consistent with existing research, highlighting that reduced photosynthetic efficiency directly affects plant growth and reproductive capacity. In indoor or home cultivation settings, supplementing artificial light could be an effective strategy to address the challenges posed by low light conditions.

2.3 Growth of soil-cultivated Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis under low light

Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis in Group C, cultivated in soil under low light and low-temperature conditions, exhibited the slowest growth performance. From January 15 to January 20, 2025, there was almost no noticeable change in leaf length. By January 24, some leaves had grown to a length of 7 cm, but overall growth was uneven, with certain leaves showing minimal development and no flower buds forming. Compared to other groups, the leaves of Group C were sparse and yellow-green in color, indicating insufficient nutrient supply and inhibited growth (Figure 2). The combination of low light and low temperature severely suppressed photosynthesis, reducing carbohydrate accumulation and further hindering plant growth. Although soil cultivation has a certain capacity for gradual water and nutrient release, its effectiveness was limited under low-light conditions. The lower efficiency of water and oxygen transfer in soil compared to hydroponics further restricted the absorption capacity of the plant roots (Waiba et al., 2020).

Experimental results demonstrate that soil cultivation is significantly less effective than hydroponics under low-light conditions. In comparison, Group B, subjected to the same light and temperature conditions, achieved better leaf growth due to the more stable growing environment provided by the hydroponic method. This highlights the greater impact of soil aeration and water supply on plant growth under insufficient light conditions.

3 Discussion

Light is one of the critical environmental factors influencing plant growth. This study demonstrated that adequate light significantly enhances the growth and flowering of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis. Under sufficient light conditions (Group A), the leaf length, number of flower buds, and flowering rate of Narcissus were markedly superior to those of other groups. This can be attributed to increased photosynthetic efficiency. Photosynthesis provides the energy required for plant growth, facilitates the accumulation and transportation of carbohydrates, and promotes flower bud differentiation and development (Qu et al., 2024). Adequate light also enhances chlorophyll synthesis, resulting in healthy green leaves in Group A, further underscoring the superiority of its overall growth. In contrast, low-light conditions (Groups B and C) significantly inhibited the growth rate and flowering ability of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis. Group C, in particular, experienced almost stagnant growth due to the combined constraints of insufficient light and soil cultivation. This indicates that inadequate light directly reduces the accumulation of photosynthetic products, thereby limiting the plant's energy supply and metabolic activities. These findings align with previous research, further reinforcing the role of light as a decisive factor in plant growth, which provide a theoretical basis for improving the cultivation conditions of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis (Bian and Pan, 2018; Rahimi Khonakdari et al., 2020).

This study also revealed the differing effects of hydroponic and soil cultivation methods on the growth of daffodils under various environmental conditions. Under low-light conditions, Group B (hydroponics under low light) exhibited better growth performance than Group C (soil cultivation under low light). Although Group B showed poorer leaf length and growth uniformity, it was still significantly superior to Group C. This can be attributed to the hydroponic environment, where the root system has direct access to adequate water and oxygen, while the distribution of water and soil aeration in the soil environment is limited, further restricting root absorption capacity (Waiba et al., 2020). However, under sufficient light conditions, the advantages of hydroponics were even more pronounced. The rapid growth and abundant flowering of Group A further demonstrated the effectiveness of hydroponics in providing plants with a stable supply of water and nutrients. This significant difference highlights the greater flexibility and efficiency of hydroponics in controlling environmental conditions, making it particularly suitable for indoor environments or cultivation practices in resource-limited areas (Sakamoto and Suzuki, 2018; Thapa et al., 2024).

In home gardening or commercial cultivation, providing adequate light and selecting an appropriate cultivation method, such as hydroponics, can significantly enhance the ornamental value and economic benefits of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis. Particularly during winter, when natural light is insufficient, supplementing artificial lighting or utilizing efficient hydroponic systems can effectively overcome environmental limitations and improve cultivation efficiency (Bian and Pan, 2018; Rahimi Khonakdari et al., 2020). Treating Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis plants with plant growth regulators, such as salicylic acid and vitamin C, can significantly enhance photosynthetic efficiency, extend flowering duration, and improve bulb yield and quality (Amin et al., 2021). The significant differences in Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis growth under various cultivation conditions offer valuable guidance for horticultural design. For scenarios requiring rapid flowering or enhanced ornamental effects, hydroponics under adequate light is undoubtedly the optimal choice. In resource-limited settings or environments requiring long-term maintenance, greater attention should be given to light management and the selection of suitable cultivation substrates.

Although this study revealed the significant impact of light conditions and cultivation methods on the growth performance of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis, several limitations remain. The experiment was conducted in a non-specialized laboratory setting, relying on natural winter light, with temperature and humidity not precisely controlled. This reliance on external environmental conditions may have introduced variability into the data, thereby limiting the rigor and generalizability of the results. Additionally, the sample size was small, with only 2-3 Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis bulbs per group, which may not adequately reflect the growth trends under different conditions. Moreover, the experimental design lacked a comparison group for "soil-cultivated Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis under adequate light." This omission prevents a comprehensive evaluation of the relative advantages and disadvantages of hydroponics and soil cultivation under different light conditions. It is possible that soil cultivation under adequate light could achieve comparable growth performance to hydroponics, but this hypothesis remains untested. Future research should be conducted under more controlled environmental conditions and include a larger sample size and additional experimental variables. Such improvements would enable the collection of more comprehensive and accurate results, providing more reliable guidance for horticultural practices.

4 Materials and Methods

4.1 Experimental design and setup

This study selects uniformly sized bulbs of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis, cultivated by Binyao Family Farm in Putuo District, Zhoushan City, for a cultivation experiment. The experiment was conducted in a standard office environment within a non-specialized laboratory setting to simulate practical cultivation conditions on December 30, 2024. It was divided into three groups: Group A, Group B, and Group C, each consisting of 2-3 bulbs. To ensure fairness and consistency, all bulbs underwent standardized pretreatment prior to planting, including removing the dry outer skin and thoroughly cleaning them.

Group A utilized hydroponics, with the bulbs placed in glass containers and positioned in an office environment with adequate natural light during the day and relatively low temperatures at night. The room temperature was maintained at approximately 20 °C during the day using air conditioning. Group B also utilized hydroponics but was placed in a low-light, cooler environment to simulate dim indoor conditions during winter. Group C employed soil cultivation under the same low-light and low-temperature conditions as Group B (Figure 3). All groups followed the same watering schedule and method, with watering conducted every three days. For the hydroponic groups, old water in the containers was replaced with fresh water during watering. For the soil cultivation group, only plain water was used to moisten the soil, with no fertilizers or additives applied.

Figure 3  Placement Environment of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis Image caption: Group A (Hydroponics under sufficient light), Group B (Hydroponics under low light), and Group C (Soil cultivation under low light)

4.2 Cultivation methods: hydroponics and soil cultivation

For hydroponic cultivation, the bulbs in Groups A and B were placed in transparent glass containers with water levels adjusted to just touch the base of the bulbs, avoiding full submersion to prevent rotting. Group A was positioned in a well-lit area of the office (e.g., windowsill), while Group B was placed in a low-light area of the office. To ensure the reliability of experimental results, the hydroponic containers remained stationary throughout the experiment, avoiding environmental variations that could affect outcomes.

For soil cultivation, the bulbs in Group C were planted in uniformly sized flowerpots filled with evenly mixed loam soil. The soil was kept moist but not overwatered, avoiding waterlogging that could lead to root rot. The soil cultivation pots were placed in the same low-light environment as the hydroponic containers for Group B, enabling a direct comparison of the two cultivation methods under low-light conditions. No fertilizers or additives were used during the experiment to ensure that all groups relied solely on clear water and their respective cultivation media for nutrients.

4.3 Light conditions: adequate light and low-light environments

Light conditions, a key variable in this experiment, were set up in two distinct environments. Group A was placed in an office environment with good natural light, receiving approximately 8 hours of daylight per day. The light primarily entered through windows, with no additional artificial light sources used. During the day, the room temperature was maintained at approximately 15 °C using air conditioning, while nighttime temperatures were around 5 °C, consistent with normal winter conditions.

Groups B and C were placed in a low-light environment where light was minimal, with no supplementary lighting provided. The temperatures in this environment were lower than those for Group A, ranging from -1 °C to 5 °C during both day and night, reflecting natural winter conditions. This setup allowed for a comparative analysis of the effects of natural light and low-light conditions on the growth of Narcissus under two cultivation methods, providing practical insights for cultivating Narcissus in home settings.

4.4 Data collection: growth parameters and performance indicators

Experimental data were collected by measuring growth parameters and observing performance indicators, including leaf length, root length, and flower bud development of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis. Data collection began on January 15, 2025, with observations recorded approximately every three days. All measurements were conducted by the same experimenter to ensure accuracy and consistency.

As of January 24, 2025, the results showed that Group A exhibited the most vigorous growth, with leaf lengths of 20 cm, root lengths of 8 cm, and nine flowers in full bloom. Group B displayed slower growth, with leaf lengths of approximately 13 cm, root lengths of 6 cm, and flower buds present but not yet blooming. Group C showed the slowest growth, with leaf lengths ranging from 2 to 5 cm and no flower buds observed (Table 1). Measurements were taken using standard tools such as rulers, and all values were recorded for subsequent statistical analysis. At the end of the experiment, data from all groups were compared and statistically analyzed to reveal the effects of different light conditions and cultivation methods on the growth performance of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis.

Table 1 Growth Performance of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis under Different Cultivation and Light Conditions Note: The data presented in the table are based on measurements as of January 24, 2025

Funding

This study was supported by Zhoushan Municipal Basic Research Foundation of Zhejiang Province (Grant No.2024C31028).

Acknowledgments

The author extends special thanks to Ms. Wang for her assistance in data organization and photography during the experiment, which greatly contributed to the completion of the manuscript. Sincere gratitude is also extended to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their comprehensive evaluation of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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