1 Introduction

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is a significant horticultural crop globally, valued for its nutritional benefits and versatility in culinary applications. It is a member of the Cucurbitaceae family and is consumed both fresh and processed, contributing to its widespread popularity (Kaur and Sharma, 2021). Cucumbers are rich in vitamins and minerals, providing essential nutrients that support human health. They are known for their cooling effect and are commonly used in salads and pickles. Additionally, cucumbers have medicinal properties, such as aiding in the treatment of jaundice and other ailments. The crop's economic importance is underscored by its extensive cultivation under various climatic conditions, including tropical and subtropical regions (Sharma et al., 2022).

Globally, cucumber production has seen significant advancements, driven by the need to meet the increasing demand of a growing population. Traditional breeding methods have been complemented by modern molecular and transgenic approaches to enhance yield, quality, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses (Kaur and Sharma, 2021; Tan et al., 2022). In regions like China, which is a major producer of cucumbers, innovative cultivation techniques such as the use of plant growth regulators and integrated nutrient management have been employed to improve productivity and sustainability (Mir et al., 2019; Tan et al., 2022). The use of greenhouse cultivation and advanced covering materials has also been shown to positively impact cucumber growth and yield by optimizing internal environmental conditions (Alsadon et al., 2016). Furthermore, the integration of organic and inorganic nutrient sources has been demonstrated to enhance soil quality and economic returns in cucumber production (Sallam et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2022).

This study evaluates the application of innovative cultivation techniques in cucumber production, covering plant remediation, comprehensive nutrient management, and the impact of advanced greenhouse technology on cucumber yield and quality. It attempts to comprehensively understand how these techniques solve problems such as soil pollution, continuous cropping obstacles, and excessive use of inorganic fertilizers, and aims to provide practical operational suggestions for agricultural practitioners and researchers to achieve sustainable yield increase in cucumber production. It involves multiple cultivation methods, such as the application of plant growth regulators, the use of earthworm castings, and the implementation of genetic transformation systems, highlighting the positive effects of these measures on cucumber growth, yield, and nutritional value.

2 Innovative Cultivation Techniques Overview

2.1 Definition and scope of innovative techniques in horticulture

Innovative cultivation techniques in horticulture encompass a range of advanced methods and technologies aimed at improving crop yield, quality, and sustainability. These techniques often involve the integration of new scientific discoveries, technological advancements, and sustainable practices to address challenges such as climate change, resource limitations, and pest management. Examples include precision irrigation, hydroponics, the use of bio-stimulants, and renewable energy applications. The scope of these techniques is broad, covering various aspects of cultivation from soil management to post-harvest preservation.

2.2 Recent advances in cucumber cultivation practices

Recent advances in cucumber cultivation have focused on optimizing resource use, enhancing plant resilience, and improving yield and quality. For instance, the use of moderately-reduced water supply has been shown to affect the chemical composition of cucumbers, increasing levels of certain beneficial compounds like malic acid and carotenoids while reducing others such as nitrogen and iron (Schlering et al., 2020). The integration of poultry manure and mineral fertilizers in greenhouse conditions has also been found to significantly enhance cucumber productivity, with a notable yield increase observed in treatments combining both nutrient sources (Sallam et al., 2021).

Hydroponic systems, particularly the nutrient film technique (NFT), have been developed to improve water and nutrient use efficiency. Studies have shown that different training methods within these systems can impact plant growth and yield, with lowering training (LT) methods resulting in higher total and marketable yields compared to pinching training (PT) methods (Samba et al., 2023) (Figure 1). Additionally, the application of nano-selenium, silicon, and hydrogen peroxide has been demonstrated to boost cucumber growth and productivity under combined salinity and heat stress, highlighting the potential of these bio-stimulants in mitigating environmental stressors (Shalaby et al., 2021).

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the NFT hydroponic system: lateral (a) and front (b) view (Adopted from Samba et al., 2023)

3 Soil and Substrate Innovations

3.1 Modern soil preparation and conditioning

Modern soil preparation and conditioning techniques have significantly evolved to enhance cucumber production. The integration of biochar and compost into traditional soil substrates has shown promising results. For instance, replacing peat with biochar-compost mixtures not only improved the dry biomass of cucumber plants but also increased the total number of fruits per plant and overall yield. This suggests that biochar-compost can be a sustainable alternative to peat, enhancing the nutritional status of the media and providing essential nutrients to the plant (Venkataramani et al., 2023). Additionally, the use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in conjunction with organic substrates has been found to improve cucumber growth and physiology by increasing root colonization, hyphal density, and nutrient uptake, while also suppressing soil-borne diseases (Ali et al., 2019).

3.2 Use of alternative substrates

The use of alternative substrates such as coconut coir and hydroponic systems has gained traction in cucumber cultivation. Hydroponics, in particular, has been shown to be an effective method for growing cucumbers, especially in regions where soil farming is challenging due to environmental or socio-political factors. For example, a study in Nigeria demonstrated that hydroponic systems using cocopeat substrates could produce comparable yields to traditional soil farming, making it a viable alternative in areas affected by farmer-herder conflicts (Ossai et al., 2022). Moreover, the use of coconut coir as an organic substrate in hydroponic systems has been found to enhance plant height, stem diameter, and leaf number, outperforming both inorganic substrates like styrofoam and traditional soil (Olubanjo et al., 2022).

3.3 Case studies of effective soil and substrate utilization

Several case studies highlight the effectiveness of innovative soil and substrate utilization in cucumber production. One study demonstrated that the use of lignite substrate in hydroponic systems, combined with high electrical conductivity (EC) nutrient solutions, significantly improved the quality and yield of cucumber fruits. The lignite substrate increased the content of β-carotene, lutein, and chlorophyll in the fruits, indicating its potential as a superior growing medium compared to traditional mineral wool (Łaźny et al., 2022). Another study focused on the use of agricultural residues as alternative substrates, finding that a mixture containing 40% moinha, 15% coconut fiber, 5% eggshell, and 40% pine bark produced the highest quality cucumber seedlings, suggesting that such combinations can effectively replace commercial substrates (Guisolfi et al., 2018).

In addition, the reuse of lignite and mineral wool growing mats in hydroponic cultivation has been explored. Results indicated that reused lignite substrates could maintain or even improve cucumber yield and fruit quality compared to new mineral wool substrates, highlighting the sustainability and cost-effectiveness of reusing organic substrates (Łaźny et al., 2021). Furthermore, the combination of leaf compost, perlite, and silt in a 1:1:1 ratio was found to be the most effective substrate for kitchen gardening, enhancing plant growth, nutrient uptake, and overall yield (Sarwar et al., 2018).

4 Seed Selection and Germination Enhancement

4.1 Criteria for choosing high-yield cucumber varieties

Selecting high-yield cucumber varieties is crucial for optimizing production. The choice of variety should be based on several factors, including genetic potential for yield, resistance to diseases, and adaptability to local growing conditions. For instance, the study on the nutrient film technique hydroponic system highlighted the importance of selecting varieties that perform well under specific cultivation methods, such as the ‘Nina Z’ variety grafted onto ‘Yu Yu Ikki’ squash, which showed significant yield improvements under the lowering training method (Samba et al., 2023). Additionally, the selection process should consider the variety’s performance under different environmental stresses, as demonstrated by the recurrent selection for low-temperature germination, which significantly improved germination rates at lower temperatures (Nienhuis et al., 1983).

4.2 Pre-treatment methods for improved germination rates

Pre-treatment methods can significantly enhance germination rates and seedling vigor. The application of biostimulants, such as KIEM®, has been shown to improve germination and seedling growth under heat stress by enhancing the antioxidant system and glyoxylate cycle (Campobenedetto et al., 2020). Similarly, the use of growth regulators and biostimulants can expedite the germination process and improve seedling quality, as evidenced by the comprehensive assessments of various growth substances on cucumber seeds (Yunusov et al., 2023) (Figure 2). Foliar application of nanoparticles, such as ZnO and Fe₃O₄, has also been found to enhance germination-related parameters, including percent germination, rate of germination, and seedling vigor, by improving biochemical properties and enzyme activities (Gupta et al., 2022).

Figure 2 a) Status of 10-day-old seedlings of Sevinch variety seeds treated in water, b) Status of 7-day-old seedlings of Sevinch variety seeds treated with PLANTASTIM stimulant (Adopted from Yunusov et al., 2023)

4.3 Seedling management for stronger plant establishment

Effective seedling management practices are essential for ensuring strong plant establishment. Grafting methods, such as root-pruned splice grafting (RPSG), have been shown to improve nutrient absorption rates and stand establishment, particularly under saline conditions (Sallaku et al., 2019). The integration of mycorrhizal inoculation further enhances nutrient uptake and plant establishment by extending the root system and increasing photosynthetic rates. Additionally, the use of optimized nutrient sources, such as a combination of poultry manure and mineral fertilizers, can significantly enhance seedling growth and productivity under greenhouse conditions (Sallam et al., 2021). These practices, combined with the selection of appropriate varieties and pre-treatment methods, contribute to the robust establishment of cucumber plants, ultimately leading to higher yields and better crop performance.

5 Precision Irrigation Techniques

5.1 Drip irrigation and its impact on water efficiency

Drip irrigation has been widely recognized for its ability to enhance water use efficiency (WUE) in cucumber production. Studies have shown that optimal drip fertigation management can significantly improve yield, quality, and WUE of greenhouse cucumbers. For instance, an experiment conducted in China revealed that medium irrigation levels (80% ET0) combined with 360 kg/ha nitrogen resulted in the highest WUE of 55.8 kg/m³ and a yield of 49.6 t/ha (Wang et al., 2019). Similarly, another study found that drip irrigation at 125% of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) with 100% fertilization promoted the best yield and nitrogen accumulation in cucumbers grown in substrate bags (Feng et al., 2019). These findings underscore the importance of precise water and nutrient management in maximizing the efficiency and productivity of cucumber cultivation.

5.2 Smart irrigation systems and automation

Smart irrigation systems, including automated and pulse drip irrigation, have further advanced the precision of water application in cucumber production. Research has demonstrated that automatic control scheduling with multiple pulses per day significantly enhances soil moisture content, water application efficiency, and crop yield. For example, an automatic pulse drip irrigation system with six pulses per day achieved the highest water application efficiency of 97% and a yield of 153.8 t/ha, compared to manual control systems (El-Shafie et al., 2021). Additionally, subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) based on water evaporation has been shown to optimize irrigation scheduling, leading to improved WUE and yield. In Northeast China, an SDI system with an 8-day interval and a plant-pan coefficient of 0.8 resulted in the highest WUE and a minimal yield reduction despite a 14.3% decrease in total irrigation water (Wang et al., 2009). These smart irrigation techniques highlight the potential for automation to enhance the sustainability and efficiency of cucumber production.

5.3 Case studies of successful precision irrigation applications

Several case studies have illustrated the successful application of precision irrigation techniques in cucumber production. In Qatar, a study on open field cucumber production found that minimal drip irrigation combined with reduced nitrogen levels significantly improved growth, fruit characteristics, and yield. The optimal combination of 50% deficit irrigation and 70 kg N/ha resulted in the highest total yield of 34.5 t/ha (Bello et al., 2023). Another case study in Northern China demonstrated that improved greenhouse cucumber production could be achieved under deficit water and fertilization conditions. The treatment with 85% field capacity and moderate fertilizer levels yielded 129.99 t/ha, indicating a 15% deficit water tolerance (Hossain et al., 2018). Furthermore, aerated drip irrigation (ADI) has been shown to enhance soil properties, root growth, and cucumber yields. In Shouguang, China, ADI with appropriate dissolved oxygen concentrations significantly improved irrigation water use efficiency and crop yields, while also promoting beneficial soil bacterial communities (Xiao et al., 2023). These case studies exemplify the effectiveness of precision irrigation techniques in various environmental and cultivation contexts, contributing to the overall advancement of sustainable cucumber production.

6 Nutrient Management Strategies

6.1 Custom fertilization plans and nutrient delivery systems

Custom fertilization plans and nutrient delivery systems are essential for optimizing cucumber production. The integration of organic and inorganic fertilizers has been shown to significantly enhance soil health and cucumber yield. For instance, the combination of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) with farmyard manure (FYM) at 100 q/ha resulted in a 50.22% higher yield compared to control and improved soil NPK content (Sharma et al., 2022). Similarly, the use of poultry manure (PM) combined with mineral fertilizers (MF) in greenhouse conditions significantly enhanced cucumber productivity, with the best results observed in the treatment combining 30 kg PM with 3 kg MF (Sallam et al., 2021) (Figure 3; Table 1). Drip irrigation combined with precise fertigation levels also plays a crucial role in maximizing yield and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in cucumbers grown in substrate bags (Feng et al., 2019).

Figure 3 The schematic design three layers of the trough. The bottom layer contained coco-peat, the top layer contained sand, and the middle layer was used for different treatments of the combination of coco-peat, MF, and poultry manure (PM) except T1, which was used as control comprising only 60 kg of PM (Adopted from Sallam et al., 2021)

Table 1 Mean comparison for different productivity-enhancing traits of cucumber for different treatments under soilless culture based on Tukey-Kramer (HSD) method (Adopted from Sallam et al., 2021)

6.2 Innovations in fertilizer types

Innovations in fertilizer types, such as controlled-release fertilizers, have been pivotal in improving nutrient management in cucumber cultivation. The use of integrated nutrient management (INM) strategies, which include vermicompost, inorganic, and bio-fertilizers, has shown promising results in enhancing yield and nutrient uptake in cucumber plants (Singh et al., 2020). Additionally, the application of organic fertilizers like turkey litter-based compost (TC) and dairy manure vermicompost (VC) has been effective in maintaining nutrient release profiles suitable for cucumber growth in greenhouse conditions (Li and Mattson, 2019). The combination of chemical fertilizers with manure (NPKM) has also been found to improve soil microbial diversity and nutrient availability, thereby reducing the adverse effects of excessive fertilizer application (Wang et al., 2023).

6.3 Timing and methods for optimal nutrient uptake

The timing and methods of nutrient application are critical for ensuring optimal nutrient uptake in cucumber plants. Studies have shown that the interaction of water, nitrogen, and magnesium significantly affects cucumber yield and quality. For example, the optimal combination of irrigation and magnesium alleviated the negative effects of nitrogen deficiency, thereby improving the partial productivity of nitrogen fertilizer (Li et al., 2023). Furthermore, weight-based fertigation strategies, which involve replenishing nutrient solutions based on the weight loss of growing bags, have been found to maximize cucumber yield and water use efficiency (WUE) (Randhe et al., 2022). The zero discharge of nutrient solutions in soilless greenhouse systems has also been demonstrated to maintain cucumber yield and quality while reducing environmental pollution (Ding et al., 2022).

7 Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM)

7.1 Overview of common cucumber pests and diseases

Cucumber cultivation is often challenged by a variety of pests and diseases that can significantly impact yield and quality. Common pests include root-knot nematodes (RKNs), which are particularly problematic in protected cultivation environments due to the buildup of soil-borne pathogens and pests (Dhillon et al., 2022). Additionally, cucumber crops are susceptible to fungal and viral diseases, which can be exacerbated by intensive production systems (Sabir et al., 2011). The striped cucumber beetle is another notable pest, especially in regions like the Midwestern United States, where it poses a significant threat to cucurbit crops (Ternest et al., 2020).

7.2 Biological and natural control methods

Biological and natural control methods are essential components of IPDM, offering sustainable alternatives to chemical pesticides. For instance, the use of plant-based amendments such as mustard cake (MC) and neem cake (NC) has shown effectiveness in managing RKN infestations in cucumber plants, leading to improved plant growth and soil health (Dhillon et al., 2022). Biological control agents like Pseudomonas fluorescens and Trichoderma harzianum have also been effective in reducing disease and nematode incidences in greenhouse cucumber cultivation (Sabir et al., 2011). Moreover, integrating conservation agriculture (CA) with IPM practices has been demonstrated to reduce labor, pests, diseases, and chemical pesticide use while improving yields and income in smallholder vegetable farms (Paudel et al., 2020).

7.3 Adoption of IPDM for sustainable cucumber farming

The adoption of IPDM practices is crucial for sustainable cucumber farming. Studies have shown that IPDM can significantly reduce pest incidences and pesticide application costs while increasing net returns and technical efficiency (Rahman and Harun-Ar-Rashid, 2020). For example, in Bangladesh, IPM adoption in vegetable farming, including cucumbers, has led to reduced pesticide costs and increased market-level benefits (Rahman et al., 2018). Additionally, the implementation of IPDM in greenhouses has been validated as an effective approach for pest control, with economic analyses indicating superior cost-benefit ratios compared to non-IPM methods (Sabir et al., 2011). However, the successful adoption of IPDM requires comprehensive planning, education, and extension efforts to transfer innovative knowledge from research to practical application (Riudavets et al., 2020).

8 Protected Cultivation Techniques

8.1 Benefits of greenhouses and polyhouses in cucumber production

Greenhouses and polyhouses offer significant advantages for cucumber production by creating a controlled environment that optimizes plant growth conditions. These structures help in maintaining optimal temperature, humidity, and light levels, which are crucial for the thermophilic and frost-susceptible cucumber crop. For instance, naturally ventilated polyhouses (NVP) have been shown to provide a more favorable micro-climate for cucumber cultivation compared to insect net houses (INH) or shade net houses (SNH), leading to improved physiological traits and higher yields (Khapte et al., 2021). Additionally, polyhouses can reduce the temperature inside by approximately 4 °C compared to the outside environment, which is beneficial during high-temperature periods (Suresh et al., 2022). The use of polyhouses also enhances water productivity and efficiency, making them a suitable low-cost option for arid regions (Khapte et al., 2021).

8.2 Use of shade nets and low tunnels for climate adaptation

Shade nets and low tunnels are effective tools for adapting cucumber cultivation to varying climatic conditions. Shade nets, particularly those with colored options like red, blue, and pearl, can improve photosynthetic responses and increase fruit production significantly compared to conventional black nets (Tafoya et al., 2018). These nets help in controlling light quality and temperature, which are critical for the growth and yield of cucumber plants. Low tunnels, on the other hand, provide protection against extreme weather conditions and pests, thereby ensuring a stable growing environment. Studies have shown that nethouses with small mesh sizes can significantly reduce insect pest populations and increase marketable yields compared to open plots and rain shelters (Nordey et al., 2020). These structures are particularly useful in regions with high temperatures and pest pressures, as they create a conducive environment for cucumber development (Nordey et al., 2020).

8.3 Case studies of successful protected cultivation practices

Several case studies highlight the success of protected cultivation practices in cucumber production. In Tanzania, the use of nethouses with small and large mesh sizes resulted in significantly higher yields and lower pest infestations compared to open plots and rain shelters (Nordey et al., 2020). In India, the application of plant-based amendments like mustard cake and neem cake in polyhouses effectively managed root-knot nematode infestations, leading to improved plant growth and yields (Dhillon et al., 2022). Another study in Pakistan demonstrated the potential of tunnel farming for off-season cucumber production, showing high yields and energy efficiency, although it also highlighted the need for renewable energy sources to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Ali et al., 2019). These examples underscore the effectiveness of protected cultivation techniques in enhancing cucumber production while addressing environmental and pest management challenges.

9 Yield Optimization Through Agronomic Practices

9.1 Pruning, trellising, and training techniques

Pruning, trellising, and training techniques are essential agronomic practices that significantly influence cucumber yield and quality. Trellising, in particular, has been shown to improve both total and marketable yields of cucumber cultivars. For instance, a study evaluating the effects of trellising on cucumber cultivars such as Dasher II, Marketmore 76, and PetoTripleMech found that trellising improved yields compared to ground culture, with PetoTripleMech producing yields equal to or higher than the other cultivars (Russo et al., 1991). These findings suggest that trellising can be a beneficial practice for enhancing cucumber production.

9.2 Impact of plant density on yield and quality

Plant density is a critical factor that affects both the yield and quality of cucumbers. Research has demonstrated that reducing plant density can improve fruit quality without compromising yield. A study conducted in greenhouse conditions with varying plant densities (2.25, 3.0, and 3.75 plants m²) revealed that lower plant density (2.25 plants m²) resulted in the highest weekly yield per plant and total yield per plant. Additionally, this treatment was associated with higher contents of soluble sugar, total phenols, flavonoids, soluble protein, vitamin C, chlorophyll, and carotenoids in the fruits, along with a relatively low nitrite content (Ding et al., 2022). These results indicate that optimizing plant density can enhance fruit quality while maintaining or even increasing yield.

9.3 Influence of pollination and companion planting

Pollination and companion planting are also important factors that can influence cucumber yield and quality. The interaction between cucumber plants and their surrounding environment, including the presence of pollinators and companion plants, can significantly impact plant growth and fruit production. For example, intercropping cucumbers with garlic has been shown to affect the rhizosphere microbial community, which in turn can influence plant growth and yield. This practice, along with grafting techniques, has been found to induce significant shifts in microbial community structure, enhancing plant growth parameters and potentially improving yield (Ezazi et al., 2021). Additionally, the use of grafting techniques with compatible rootstocks has been shown to enhance plant survival rates, vegetative growth, and fruit yield, providing an effective strategy for improving cucumber production (Noor et al., 2019).

10 Conclusion Remarks

This systematic review has highlighted several innovative cultivation techniques that have shown promise in enhancing cucumber production. The integration of poultry manure and mineral fertilizers significantly improved cucumber growth and productivity under greenhouse conditions, with the T2 treatment (30 kg PM+3 kg MF) showing a 74.6% yield increase. Moderately-reduced water supply was found to enhance the chemical composition of pickling cucumbers, increasing levels of malic acid, calcium, and magnesium, which are beneficial for nutritional quality. The application of nano-selenium, silicon, and hydrogen peroxide as foliar treatments under combined salinity and heat stress conditions improved cucumber growth and productivity, with silicon showing the greatest impact on enzymatic antioxidant capacities and marketable fruit yield. Additionally, the use of the nutrient film technique hydroponic system with lowering training methods resulted in higher yields and more efficient nutrient use. Optimal irrigation scheduling and the integration of organic and inorganic nutrient sources were also found to enhance cucumber yield and soil health.

Based on the findings, several recommendations can be made for adopting innovative techniques in cucumber cultivation. Integrated nutrient management: Combining poultry manure with mineral fertilizers can significantly enhance cucumber productivity and should be considered for greenhouse cultivation. Water management: Implementing moderately-reduced water supply strategies can improve the nutritional quality of cucumbers and should be adopted in regions facing water scarcity. Foliar applications: The use of nano-selenium, silicon, and hydrogen peroxide as foliar treatments can mitigate the adverse effects of salinity and heat stress, thus improving yield and quality. Hydroponic systems: Utilizing nutrient film technique hydroponic systems with appropriate training methods can optimize growth and yield, making it a viable option for controlled environment agriculture. Irrigation scheduling: Optimal soil matric potential thresholds and deficit irrigation strategies should be employed to maximize water use efficiency and economic returns.

Future research should focus on further refining these innovative techniques to enhance their applicability and efficiency. Studies should explore the long-term impacts of integrated nutrient management on soil health and productivity. Additionally, the development of more resilient cucumber varieties that can withstand abiotic stresses such as salinity and heat will be crucial. The potential of advanced hydroponic systems and automation in cucumber cultivation should also be investigated to reduce labor costs and improve efficiency. Finally, the integration of precision agriculture technologies, such as sensors and IoT, can provide real-time data to optimize water and nutrient management, leading to sustainable and high-yield cucumber production.

Funding

This study was supported by Zhoushan Municipal Basic Research Foundation of Zhejiang Province (Grant No.2024C31028).

Acknowledgments

Special thank to the anonymous reviewer for their valuable opinions and suggestions. Your meticulous review and professional guidance have greatly improved the quality of this paper and played a key role in promoting the improvement of research work. I am deeply honored to receive such high-level academic support, and I would like to express my sincerest gratitude.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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